Maps and Directions

Cardinal Directions

• The 16 cardinal directions are: N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, ESE, SE, SSE, S, SSW, SW, WSW, W, WNW, NW, and NNW.

Directions Example

• Canberra is located South of Townsville.
• Rockhampton is located North North West (NNW) of Brisbane.

Coordinates

• When writing coordinates, latitude is written first, followed by longitude.
• Latitude lines run north and south.
• Longitude lines run east and west.

Main Lines of Latitude

• North Pole: 90 degrees North
• Arctic Circle: 66 1/2 degrees North
• Tropic of Cancer: 23 1/2 degrees North
• Equator: 0 degrees latitude
• Tropic of Capricorn: 23 1/2 degrees South
• Antarctic Circle: 66 1/2 degrees South
• South Pole: 90 degrees South

Hemispheres and Coordinates

• Coordinates 45°N, 90°E are located in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Coordinates 5°S, 135°W are located in the Southern Hemisphere.

Main Lines of Longitude

• Prime Meridian: 0 degrees
• International Date Line (anti-meridian): 180 degrees

Hemispheres

• The four main hemispheres are Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western.

Area and Grid References

• An Area Reference (AR) consists of four numbers.
• A Grid Reference (GR) consists of six numbers.
• The rule for writing references is Eastings before Northings.

Grid Reference Process

• To add another number in a Grid Reference, estimate the location of the point.
• If it is at the top use 10, in the middle use 5, and just above the bottom use 1.
• Write out the Eastings first, then write the approximate location of the thing in terms of the Easting and the same for the Northings

Climate Graphs

• The line on a climate graph represents temperature.
• The columns on a climate graph represent precipitation.
• A lower temperature line in June, July, and August indicates a location in the Southern Hemisphere.
• A higher temperature line in June, July, and August indicates a location in the Northern Hemisphere.

Environment

• An environment includes all living and non-living components in the natural and human world that support and enrich life.

Biotic and Abiotic

• Biotic refers to living components.
• Abiotic refers to non-living components.

Flora and Fauna

• Flora refers to plants.
• Fauna refers to animals.

Ecosystem

• An ecosystem is the interaction between the biotic and abiotic features of an environment.

Biotic Components

• Examples of biotic components in an environment include flora, fauna, bacteria, and fungi.

Abiotic Components

• Examples of abiotic components in an environment include temperature, rain, humidity, sand, rock, and clay.

Four Spheres

• The four spheres are:
  • Biosphere: all plants and animals on Earth
  • Hydrosphere: all the water on Earth
  • Atmosphere: all the gases that envelope the Earth
  • Lithosphere: land, soil, and minerals on Earth

Sphere Interactions

• The four spheres interact to produce stable environments and sustain life on Earth.

Processes Within Spheres

• Processes within the four spheres include the oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, water cycle, and food chains.

Water (Hydrological) Cycle

• The water cycle is the process by which water is recycled between the ocean, land, and atmosphere.

Water Percentages

• 97.45% of water is found in the ocean.
• 97% of water is not fresh.

Water Cycle Processes

• The processes of the water cycle are evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection/runoff.

Detailed Water Cycle Description

• Evaporation: liquid turns to gas (ocean water turns into water vapor).
• Condensation: water vapor is cooled down and turns back to liquid water, forming clouds.
• Precipitation: water is released from the clouds in the form of sleet, snow, rain, or hail.
• Collection: water is temporarily collected and stored.

Oxygen Cycle

• The oxygen cycle is part of the Biosphere.
• Oxygen is created through photosynthesis in plants, and animals consume this oxygen through respiration. Animals breathe out CO2, which plants need to create oxygen.
• It's the process of oxygen moving through Earth's spheres.

Carbon Cycle

• The carbon cycle is part of the atmospheric cycle.
• It is a closed cycle.
• It is essential for life as it balances the carbon in the atmosphere.
• It's the process of carbon moving through Earth's spheres.

Carbon Sink

• A carbon sink removes carbon from the atmosphere.
• Forests, oceans, and humans are examples of carbon sinks.

Carbon Cycle Sources

• Sources add carbon to the atmosphere.
• Examples are respiration (breathing), decay, and combustion (burning).

Biodiversity

• Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms such as the animals, and the ecosystems, landscapes, and environments they form.

Causes of Biodiversity Differences

• Temperature and climate are the main causes.
• The highest biodiversity is found in tropical zones such as the Amazon.
• The lowest biodiversity is found in polar regions.

Importance of Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is essential to maintain life on Earth such as bees pollinating 70% of our food.

Reasons Biodiversity is Important to Humans

• Biological resources (food, wood, medicines, breeding stocks, diversity in species)
• Ecosystem services (soil nutrients for growing crops, pollution breakdown)
• Social benefits (cultural values, tourism)

Loss of Biodiversity

• Human impacts are causing the loss and reduction of biodiversity.
• Deforestation can impact biodiversity by removing animal habitats.

Food Webs and Chains

• Diagrams show the transfer of biomass (and energy) through organisms in an ecosystem.
• Greater biodiversity leads to greater interaction of species, resulting in a more stable population.
• A disturbance or removal of something in an ecosystem can disrupt the food chain.

Food Web and Chain Components

• Producers: organisms that convert the sun's energy to food (plants)
• Consumers: animals that eat plants or other animals

Food Web vs. Food Chain

• A food web links producers and consumers in an environment.
• A food chain follows one path of energy, showing what eats what in a particular ecosystem.

Maintaining Ecosystems

• Biodiversity in an ecosystem provides different species for different roles, such as pollination and population control.

Social Benefits of Biodiversity

• Cultural value
• Recreation value
• Education value
• Tourism value

Four Functions (Roles) of Environments

• Source function
• Sink function
• Service function
• Spiritual function

Source Function

• The earth provides us with resources such as medicines, food, raw materials, and natural resources.

Sink Function

• The environment has the ability to absorb, break down, and recycle wastes, including pollution.

Service Function

• The environment's provision of balance and stability.
• Environmental services maintain and support life without human intervention.

Spiritual Function

• The cultural, recreational, or psychological value of the environment for people

Apex Predators

• Predators that are at the top of the food chain.
• Have no predators.

Importance of Apex Predators

• Maintain stable populations within the ecosystem.
• Ensure no single animal's population overpowers another's.
• Eat herbivores.

Human Activities Causing Change

• Overgrazing
• Overfishing
• Over cropping
• Logging
• Industrialization
• Mining
• Urbanization

Results of Human Activities on the Environment

• Loss of biodiversity
• Climate change
• Land degradation
• Deteriorating water quality and quantity
• Atmospheric pollution
• Degraded aquatic environments

Biosphere Changes Due to Human Activity

• Declining biodiversity
• Declining bees populations
• More species going endangered
• Decline in wildlife due to pesticides and fertilizers

Hydrosphere Changes Due to Human Activity

• Water pollution
• Decline in marine life due to oil spills
• Air pollutants creating acid rain

Climate Change

• Refers to average conditions such as temperature and rainfall in a region over a long period.
• Has increased more rapidly in recent times.

Weather Changes Due to Climate Change

• More intense rainfall
• More intense droughts
• More extreme weather events (stronger cyclones)

Greenhouse Effect

• The earth is kept warm by the greenhouse effect where certain gases block heat from escaping, keeping the earth warm.

Without the Greenhouse Effect

• The earth would be much cooler, and ice ages would begin.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

• Impact on climate from additional heat retained due to increased CO2 and other greenhouse gases released by humans since the Industrial Revolution.

Causes of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

• Activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture, and land clearing.

Human Activities Causing Climate Change

• Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 into the atmosphere.
• Global population growth leads to increased needs, increasing CO2.
• Increased consumption of animals that produce methane.

Climate Change Causes

• Burning fossil fuels (produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide)
• Deforestation
• Increased livestock farming (cows and sheep produce methane and impact soil quality)
• Crop farming practices (fertilizers containing nitrogen produce nitrous oxide emissions)

Impacts of Climate Change in Australia

• More intense cyclones
• Extreme rainfall events
• Hotter and drier conditions
• Longer and more intense heatwaves
• Higher sea levels
• Potential increase in severe weather events (thunderstorms)
• More frequent droughts

Global Impacts of Climate Change

• Temperatures increasing
• Rising sea levels
• More severe/intense weather events
• Altered precipitation patterns
• Extended growing seasons
• Ocean temperatures and acidification

Scales of Environmental Change

• Local
• Regional
• National
• Global

Impacts of Higher Temperature Levels

• Increased bushfires and drought risk

Impacts of Rising Sea Levels

• Coastal communities at risk of flooding and water damage.
• Contamination of soil and groundwater due to salinity.

Impacts of Altered Precipitation Patterns

• Wet areas become wetter, and dry areas become drier.
• Wet crop areas become damaged.
• Dry areas have poor soil quality.

Impacts of Extended Growing Seasons

• More CO2 is produced (farmer may add pesticides or fertilizers)

Impacts of Ocean Temperatures and Acidification

• Ocean acidification harms marine life.
• Warmer ocean temperatures create ice melting, sea level rise, and marine heatwaves.

Impacts of Intense Weather Events

• Increased rainfall can degrade water quality, harming human health and ecosystems.
• During extreme droughts, water supplies become scarce.

Atmosphere Changes Due to Human Activity

• Burning fossil fuels is increasing the greenhouse gas effect.

Lithosphere Changes Due to Human Activity

• Decline of animals due to deforestation.
• Desertification due to human impacts.