Machiavelli's The Prince Insights

Machiavelli's The Prince

• Virtú (virtue): Not moral goodness in the traditional sense, but the ability to adapt to circumstances, understand and control fortune, and use both good and evil effectively to maintain power. A prince must be adaptable, like a fox (clever) and forceful, like a lion (ferocious). Image management is crucial; appearing virtuous is more important than actually being virtuous. This allows the prince to act ruthlessly when necessary for the good of the state, and appear worthy.
• Following Rules: Princes should not always follow pre-existing rules. Sometimes, acting against morality and religion is necessary to maintain state power. Appearances are paramount, appearing committed to virtues like compassion and honesty, even if, in fact, the prince acts otherwise.
• Positive Qualities/Virtues: Machiavelli lists traditional virtues like compassion, honesty, and generosity. However, a prince should appear to possess these virtues, not necessarily possess them in reality. This deception allows the prince to maintain support and avoid being hated. Avoidance of weakness (fickleness, cowardice) is key.
• Human Nature: Humans are self-interested, ungrateful, deceptive, risk-averse, and eager for gain. Driven by desires for power, wealth, and possessions, not by virtue; easily swayed by personal interests, and can be deceived by appearances. Better to be feared than loved, as trust is fickle.
• Virtú vs. Classical Virtue: Machiavelli's virtu is pragmatic and situational, focused on maintaining power, unlike Plato's or Aristotle's concepts, which emphasize intellectual understanding of goodness or the mean between extremes. While aiming for a strong state, Machiavelli's virtu deviates significantly from the classical ideal of moral virtue.
• Strict Morality and Good Leadership: No, Machiavelli argues, upholding strict morality is incompatible with effective leadership. A prince must be flexible to maintain power and the stability of the state. A ruler's actions cannot be limited by ethics or morality, especially should the people also neglect moral duties.

Descartes' Discourse on Method

• Four Rules for True Knowledge:
  • Accept only clear and distinct ideas as true.
  • Break down problems into smaller parts.
  • Solve problems sequentially, simplest to most complex.
  • Make detailed lists to ensure completeness.
• Need for Method in Science: Descartes believed existing approaches lacked a systematic method, leading to numerous errors. Sense-based learning alone is inadequate. An intellectual approach is paramount for true knowledge.
• Difference from Skeptics: Descartes' doubt is constructive, a method for arriving at certainty, unlike skeptics' doubt, which is for the sake of doubting.
• "I think, therefore I am": The act of doubting one's existence proves one's existence as a thinking being. Thinking is essential for the individual to achieve certainty.
• Moral Rules: Provisional rules for navigating life while searching for certain knowledge. There has to be a set of morals as a guide for living during the doubts; this guide is needed to avoid inaction and be able to operate effectively and avoid mistakes in society
• Four Maxims (Provisional Code of Morals):
  • Obey laws and customs, embrace religious instruction, and adopt moderate opinions in daily life.
  • Act firmly and resolutely on decisions. Don't deviate from opinions even if slightly doubtful.
  • Focus on self-mastery (desires) rather than trying to change the world.
  • Dedicate life to improving one's reason and pursuit of certain knowledge.
• Indubitable Truth: Descartes' own existence as a thinking thing (the "I").
• Arguments for God's Existence:
  • Idea of Perfection: The idea of a perfect being implies a perfect creator. A perfect cause must generate a perfect effect.
  • Ontological Argument: God is defined as a perfect being and a completely perfect being must exist. Therefore existence belongs to God's attributes.