Podcast
Questions and Answers
What elements are measured in microns?
What elements are measured in microns?
Smaller microns result in larger chips.
Smaller microns result in larger chips.
False
Copper is a good choice for chips because it is less energy efficient than aluminum.
Copper is a good choice for chips because it is less energy efficient than aluminum.
False
The introduction of copper enabled processors to reach GHz speeds.
The introduction of copper enabled processors to reach GHz speeds.
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What is a PC-on-a-chip?
What is a PC-on-a-chip?
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What is the main result of using thinner wires in a processor?
What is the main result of using thinner wires in a processor?
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A ZIF socket is a type of socket designed for easy insertion of chips with a low density of pins.
A ZIF socket is a type of socket designed for easy insertion of chips with a low density of pins.
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What is the primary benefit of the Single Edge Contact technology?
What is the primary benefit of the Single Edge Contact technology?
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The L1 cache is typically larger than the L2 cache?
The L1 cache is typically larger than the L2 cache?
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Which of the following statements is NOT true about MMX instructions?
Which of the following statements is NOT true about MMX instructions?
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What is the key difference between Intel's SSE and AMD's 3DNow!?
What is the key difference between Intel's SSE and AMD's 3DNow!?
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What is the name of Intel's 64-bit processor?
What is the name of Intel's 64-bit processor?
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Which of the following companies is NOT a major player in the CPU market?
Which of the following companies is NOT a major player in the CPU market?
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Transmeta's Crusoe processor was known for its high transistor count.
Transmeta's Crusoe processor was known for its high transistor count.
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What company is the primary leader in high-end 64-bit servers?
What company is the primary leader in high-end 64-bit servers?
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The PowerPC architecture was designed by Apple exclusively.
The PowerPC architecture was designed by Apple exclusively.
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Which processor supports up to 1000 processors?
Which processor supports up to 1000 processors?
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AMD's Athlon MP supports up to 8 processors.
AMD's Athlon MP supports up to 8 processors.
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Moore's Law suggests that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 18 months.
Moore's Law suggests that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 18 months.
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What was the original name of Intel's Itanium processor?
What was the original name of Intel's Itanium processor?
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What is the primary difference between Itanium and Itanium 2?
What is the primary difference between Itanium and Itanium 2?
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AMD initially started as a chip manufacturer for IBM.
AMD initially started as a chip manufacturer for IBM.
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The K5 processor was known for its impressive performance and MMX technology.
The K5 processor was known for its impressive performance and MMX technology.
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AMD's Athlon chip was originally designed to compete with Intel's Pentium processor.
AMD's Athlon chip was originally designed to compete with Intel's Pentium processor.
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Which processor was known as the "Celeron killer"?
Which processor was known as the "Celeron killer"?
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Transmeta's Crusoe processor used an x86 instruction set.
Transmeta's Crusoe processor used an x86 instruction set.
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What is NOT a feature of Transmeta's Crusoe processor?
What is NOT a feature of Transmeta's Crusoe processor?
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Compaq Alpha was an early competitor to Intel's processors.
Compaq Alpha was an early competitor to Intel's processors.
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What technology did Compaq and Intel decide to focus on instead of Alpha?
What technology did Compaq and Intel decide to focus on instead of Alpha?
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Compaq Alpha was a 32-bit processor.
Compaq Alpha was a 32-bit processor.
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Which of the following is NOT a feature of Sun's UltraSparc IV processor?
Which of the following is NOT a feature of Sun's UltraSparc IV processor?
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The PowerPC architecture is based on RISC technology.
The PowerPC architecture is based on RISC technology.
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Which company's products are NOT listed as capable of running on a PowerPC processor?
Which company's products are NOT listed as capable of running on a PowerPC processor?
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Intel Xeon processors support up to 32 processors?
Intel Xeon processors support up to 32 processors?
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AMD's Opteron processors support up to 4 processors.
AMD's Opteron processors support up to 4 processors.
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Intel's Itanium 2 processors can support up to 128 processors.
Intel's Itanium 2 processors can support up to 128 processors.
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Study Notes
Computer Architecture: Part II-D: Processor Architecture
- This section surveys processor architecture.
- Various CPU processors are discussed, including examples from Intel and AMD.
- Differences between processors are highlighted.
Areas of Development
- Internal and external clock frequency is a key area of improvement.
- Clock doubling techniques are used.
- System bus speeds, internal/external data width, internal cache, instruction sets, die materials, and voltage are highlighted as areas for development in CPUs.
- The ultimate goal is to enhance CPU and overall system speed.
Areas of Development: Clock Frequency
- Internal clock frequency directly affects data processing speed within the CPU.
- External clock frequency dictates the speed of data transfer between the CPU and the system bus.
System Bus
- The primary function is to move data between the processor and other components, like main memory.
- Current Intel Pentium 4 processors support 400/533/800 MHz bus speeds.
- AMD Athlon XP processors support a 400 MHz bus.
The GHz Race
- In June 1999, API and Samsung showcased a 1 GHz chip targeting the mid-2000s.
- Compaq was a major consumer of these early high-speed chips.
- In March 2000, AMD released a 1 GHz Athlon, quickly followed by a 1 GHz PIII from Intel.
- Key developments in 2001-2004 included upgrades in processor frequency and the use of newer, smaller microchips.
Number of Transistors
- A graph illustrating the increasing number of transistors per CPU from 1984 to 2001 is presented.
- The trend shows a significant increase in the number of transistors over time, indicating advancements in CPU performance.
The Microprocessor War: Intel vs. AMD
- Intel is frequently challenged by its main competitor, AMD.
- Key areas of competition include processor speed, innovation, and price.
Micron Technology
- Micron is a unit of measurement for chip dimensions.
- Smaller microns lead to smaller chips, more transistors, and increased power.
- Modern CPUs typically use 0.09 micron (90nm) technology.
- Human hair is approximately 100 microns in width.
Micron Technology: Examples
- Detailed data on processor types and micron technology, from the 8080 chip to P4/Athlon XP, across the years 1974-2004, is provided.
Copper-based Microprocessors
- Copper is superior to aluminum in terms of electrical conductivity, leading to lower energy consumption and space requirements.
- Copper significantly contributed to boosting CPU speeds in the GHz range.
Examples of Copper Processors
- IBM led the way in utilizing copper in microprocessors, deploying it in their PowerPC chips around 1998.
- Apple's iBook was released in 1999, using an optimized PowerPC version.
- Both Intel Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon processors leverage copper technology.
PC on a Chip
- Chip developers are integrating multiple core electronic features into a single chip, replacing multiple chips found in typical PCs today, including the processor, graphics, and audio functions.
Industry Updates on PC-on-a-chip
- National Semiconductor created the Geode chip family.
- Geode SC1400 is designed for internet-centric TV, equipped for digital videos.
- Intel StrongARM targeted handheld and palm-sized devices, wireless, and internet appliances.
- AMD is another manufacturer of chip systems for these applications.
Impact of PC-on-a-Chip
- Smaller and quieter desktops are a direct result of this technology.
- Longer battery life for laptops is achieved due to lower power consumption in the chip.
- Advancements also facilitate improvements in information appliances.
Areas of Development: Voltage
- Thinner wires in CPUs allow for lower operating voltages.
- This reduction in voltage leads to less heat generation and improved operating speeds.
Casing
- Socket 7: The motherboard receptacle for Pentium CPU chips.
- Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) socket: Enables easier insertion of chips with many pins, employing a lever for secure placement.
- Slot 1 cartridge (SEC): Accommodates up to two CPUs, with an external L2 cache running at half the CPU speed.
- SEC (Single Edge Contact): Allows more than one CPU to be added to the socket for higher computational power.
- Slot 2 cartridge: An upgraded Slot 1 with significant improvements in the L2 cache, providing high processing speeds.
AMD on a Slot A
- A motherboard receptacle for K7 CPU chips from AMD.
- It's electrically different despite physical similarities to Slot 1, featuring different electrical requirements.
FC-PPGA (Flip-Chip)
- Traditionally CPU wiring has wire bond pads.
- Modern Flip-Chip technology uses solder balls on a different arrangement to improve efficiency.
Advantages of FC-PPGA (Flip-Chip)
- More I/O pins are available.
- Smaller dies mean more dies per wafer, boosting manufacturing efficiency.
- Electrical connections are shorter, enhancing overall processing performance.
- Improvements in manufacturing efficiency are an added advantage.
LGA/BGA
- LGA (Land Grid Array) and BGA (Ball Grid Array) are CPU packaging methods showing a bottom view and a socket view.
Advantages of LGA/BGA
- Lower voltages due to shorter distances and reduced signal loss.
- Less heat dissipation due to the method of connecting to the CPU.
Chip Sets
- A set of intelligent controller chips on the motherboard to control buses around the CPU.
- Enhance speeds and facilities in other components like RAM, improving EIDE devices.
- Some chip set suppliers include Intel, SIS, Opti, VIA, and ALi.
Areas of Development: Clock Doubling
- High-speed processors (e.g., 400 MHz) pose challenges for other electrical components to keep up.
- Clock doubling splits CPU frequency into internal and external components.
- Internal clock determines CPU processing, while external governs the system bus.
- 486DX2 25/50 was an early implementation.
Clock Doubling: What Happens?
- If the motherboard crystal runs at 25 MHz, the CPU gets a signal every 40 nanoseconds.
- The CPU internally doubles this to 50 MHz, allowing for 20-nanosecond intervals for internal actions.
Overclocking
- Going beyond recommended clock frequency settings.
- Methods involving adjusting system bus frequencies, CPU multipliers, or both.
- Some CPUs come with locked frequencies as part of their design specifications.
Overclocking: How-to
- Jumper settings on the motherboard are crucial for overclocking.
- Instructions are generally found on the motherboard for configuring the jumpers.
- Newer motherboards tend to have jumper-less setups for simpler overclocking.
Overclocking Issues
- Overclocking can lead to increased heat generation.
- The L2 cache in Pentium II cartridges has its own performance limitations.
- RAM needs to accommodate the increased speed of the system bus.
- Software compatibility with increased overclocking speeds may also be an issue.
Cooling
- Increased CPU overclocking results in higher temperatures.
- Cooling fans and heat sinks are used to dissipate the generated heat for optimal functioning.
Areas of Development: Data Width
- Internal data width indicates the number of data bits a CPU can process simultaneously.
- External data width signifies the number of data bits the CPU receives simultaneously for processing.
Areas of Development: Cache
- Acts as a buffer between the CPU and memory.
- Internal and external caches exist in a processor.
Areas of Development: Cache Examples
- The level of the cache is internal to the processor or is in separate modules plugged into the motherboard.
L2 Cache Out of Chip
- Separating L2 cache from the CPU was initially more cost-effective.
Why L2 Cache Was Expensive
- Separation of the L2 cache and CPU requires a larger chip and socket, thus increasing the cost.
Areas of Development: Instruction Set
- Simplifying instruction sets to improve processing efficiency.
- Enhancing overall CPU functionality via tailored instructions is possible.
About Multimedia
- Multimedia applications involve complex geometric transformations, affecting image location and size calculations.
- Floating-point computations are necessary for multimedia tasks.
- The CPU's FPU handles these computations, but the efficiency hinges on how fast the FPU can complete its computations.
About the FP Registers
- Pentium-class processors include 8 FP registers (80 bits wide), accommodating up to 8 80-bit numbers or 16 32-bit numbers.
How Multimedia Is Handled
- Speeding up the CPU improves FPU performance, leading to faster tasks.
- Adding more pipelines to the FPU enhances processing speeds.
- New instructions facilitate more-effective 3D operations and optimize graphics card performance.
Multimedia Innovations in CPUs
- Multimedia functionalities are facilitated through MMX, 3DNow!, and SSE processor sets.
MMX
- The 1995 Pentium release introduced 57 new functions specifically for 3D graphics (SIMD, Single Instruction Multiple Data).
- A drawback is that MMX can operate with only integers, not with floating point numbers.
3DNow!
- Introduced on AMD's K6-2 by AMD in 1998 to further improve handling of multimedia operations, using the SIMD instruction technique.
- 21 new instructions enable fast multimedia task handling.
SSE
- Intel's response to 3DNow!, released in 1999 on the Pentium 3, featuring new instructions (SIMD) capable of operating on several 32-bit numbers simultaneously for high-speed processing.
- A notable characteristic is the improved handling of floating-point operations.
SSE Enhancements
- Introduced in Pentium 4, SSE2 expanded SSE capabilities with an increased data width and new set of instructions.
- SSE3 further expanded features related to multimedia processes and threading.
Future Trends
- Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) provides details regarding future microprocessor trends.
- Future innovations continue to reinforce Moore's Law.
1999 SIA Roadmap for Microprocessors
- Data on MPU gate length, transistors, die size, packaging, pins/balls, and wafer size, spanning the years from 1999 to 2008, is presented.
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
- This table contains relevant data on microprocessors' developments.
Intel Corporation
- Intel's significant impact on the microprocessor domain, technological leadership, and diverse product lines beyond CPUs (such as motherboards) are highlighted.
- Started as a memory company, Intel transitioned to CPUs beginning in the 1970s.
Short History of Intel
- Founded in 1968, Intel initially focused on memory products.
- The 1970s saw strong growth in the memory market share.
- Challenges followed from Japanese companies in the 1980s (demand for memory chips increased), prompting a move out of the memory market.
- The 1986 shift resulted in a successful leap to 32-bit processing and beyond.
Intel Processor Time Line
- Timeline of major Intel CPU releases from 1971-2000 plus specific innovations.
The Fundamental Problem to Solve
- Traditional CPUs wait for memory access before processing; resulting in delays.
Pentium Pro
- Dynamic execution is a key feature where multiple processes are analyzed and optimized sequentially, enhancing overall processing speed.
Intel Processor Time Line
- Continued chronological overview of significant Intel CPU launches and key innovations.
Intel's 64-Bit Chip: Itanium
- Itanium is a 64-bit processor from Intel, designed with Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC) technology.
- Itanium has features such as cache levels (3), operations per clock cycle, and prediction/speculation operations.
- Improvements in data bus bandwidth, compatibility, transistors, and registers are key features.
Itanium 2
- Further enhancements to Itanium, including operational frequencies and cache technology (L3), are described here.
AMD
- AMD, a rival to Intel, offers alternative technologies, challenging Intel's dominance.
- Key features such as K5, K6, and K6-II are discussed.
AMD: Series
- Chronological overview of key AMD processor series, including performance characteristics, and new features.
The Athlon XP Chip
- Features of the AMD Athlon XP, highlighting its superior performance against contemporary Intel counterparts.
Comparing Athlon and P4
- A table comparing aspects of the AMD Athlon XP and the Intel Pentium 4 processors is provided, giving a comprehensive comparison.
AMD's 64-Bit Chips
- Details on AMD products that support 64-bit processing and their contributions to the 64-bit realm.
Cyrix
- A historical overview of the Cyrix company (acquired by VIA).
- Their contribution and subsequent position in the CPU market are described.
Cyrix Architectural Features
- Key features and aspects of the Cyrix architecture, focusing on its efforts and technology advancements that were implemented in different products.
Cyrix Lineup
- Chronological overview of important products from the Cyrix lineup and their distinct features.
Transmeta's Crusoe Processor
- Transmeta's Crusoe processor aimed for low power consumption and high performance.
- It uses different technology than x86, relying on code morphing to translate instruction sets compatible with standard ones.
How Crusoe Pulled It Off
- Crusoe processor's distinct approach to translation for high performance with low power consumption.
Current Transmeta Processors
- Features and configurations of current Transmeta processor models.
Compaq Alpha
- Describes how Compaq, partnering with Intel, allowed some of its server architecture to use Intel's Itanium CPU.
- Discusses the extent of the technology transfer regarding Alpha to Intel.
Sun UltraSparc IV
- A detailed look at high-end 64-bit server architecture produced by Sun.
- The characteristics of Sun UltraSparc IV, including processor speed and cache size, and a comparison against other processor lines.
The PowerPC Microprocessor
- Highlights the background and architecture of PowerPC microprocessors.
Multiprocessors
- Details the range of processors with multiprocessing capabilities of several manufacturers (both Intel and AMD).
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