Untitled Quiz

Convergent - Fan shaped, example: Deltoid muscle.
Parallel - Fibers run parallel to the long axis of the muscle, example: Sartorius muscle.
Pennate - Short fibers attach obliquely to a central tendon, example: Rectus femoris muscle.
Circular - Sphincter-like, example: Orbicularis oculi muscle.
Segmented - Fused parts, example: Rectus abdominis muscle.

Prime Mover - Main muscle responsible for a specific movement, example: Brachialis for elbow flexion.
Antagonist - Opposes the action of the prime mover, example: Triceps for elbow flexion.
Synergist & Fixator - Stabilizes other joints for smooth movement, example: Muscles that stabilize the shoulder during elbow flexion.

Synovial Bursa - Closed fibrous sac lined by a synovial membrane, present where a tendon rubs against a bony prominence, example: Subscapular bursa.
Synovial Sheath - Tubular fibrous sheath lined by a synovial membrane, present where a tendon rubs against multiple bony prominences, example: Long flexor tendons of the forearm.

A long bone (S-shaped) located in the root of the neck.
Functions: Transmits forces from the upper limb to the axial skeleton and supports the arm.
Consists of a medial (sternal) end, body (shaft), and lateral (acromial) end.
Forms the sterno-clavicular and acromio-clavicular joints.

Largest abdominal organ, occupying the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions.
Consists of two main lobes (right and left) and two accessory lobes (caudate and quadrate).
Related to the anterior abdominal wall, diaphragm, vertebral column, IVC, right ribs, and viscera.
Contains a fossa for the gallbladder and the liver hilum (porta hepatis).

Nutrient-rich blood circulates between the gut and liver.
Allows the liver to remove harmful substances before blood enters the main circulation.
Starts in the alimentary tract, collects in the portal vein, and ends in the liver for metabolism.

12 pairs of nerves that originate from the brain.
Primarily involved in sensory and motor functions of the head and neck.
Examples: Olfactory (smell), Optic (vision), Trigeminal (sensory from face, motor to muscles of mastication), Facial (motor to facial muscles, parasympathetic), Vagus (parasympathetic to heart, respiratory and GIT).

Controls involuntary functions like heart rate, smooth muscle contraction, and gland secretions.
Sympathetic division: Located in the spinal cord (thoracic and first two lumbar segments), increases activity in stress conditions, decreases GIT activity, dilates bronchi, and increases heart rate.
Parasympathetic division: Located in brain stem nuclei and sacral segments, increases activity in rest conditions, increases GIT activity, constricts bronchi, and decreases heart rate.

External Genital Organs - Vulva (composed of labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris), breast (mammary gland).
Internal Genital Organs - Ovaries (primary sex organs), fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina.

Primary sex organ in females.
Almond-shaped, 1x2x3 cm.
Mixed gland: Produces estrogen and progesterone hormones (endocrine) and ova (exocrine).

Structural, functional, and metabolic disorders present at birth.
Teratology studies these disorders.
Major structural anomalies occur in 4-6% of live-born infants and contribute significantly to disability.
Minor structural anomalies occur in 15% of live-born infants.

Malformations - Disorders occurring during organ formation (embryonic period), organ not formed, partially formed, or abnormally formed, example: renal aplasia and polydactyly.
Disruptions - Morphological alterations of already formed structures, example: amniotic band syndrome.
Deformations - Abnormality due to a mechanical force, example: clubfoot due to compression in the amniotic cavity.
Syndromes - Group of anomalies occurring together due to a specific cause, example: VACTERL association.

Agents that can cause congenital anomalies or birth defects.
50-60% of birth defects have an unknown cause.
Genetic causes: 15% due to chromosomal abnormalities.
Environmental causes: 10% due to teratogens, including infectious agents, physical agents, drugs, hormones, and environmental pollutants.

Infectious Agents: Rubella virus and cytomegalovirus can produce cardiac and neural tube defects.
Physical Agents: X-rays can kill rapidly dividing cells.
Drugs: Thalidomide (sedative) can produce limb defects, Valproic acid (anti-epileptic) can produce neural tube defects.
Hormones: Synthetic progesterone (norethistrone) can masculinize female fetal genital organs.