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Questions and Answers
What concept describes the phenomenon where individual self-awareness diminishes in groups, potentially leading to aggressive behavior?
What concept describes the phenomenon where individual self-awareness diminishes in groups, potentially leading to aggressive behavior?
According to the Authoritarian Personality theory, which factor contributes to submission to authority?
According to the Authoritarian Personality theory, which factor contributes to submission to authority?
What variable in the Milgram study modifies the level of obedience observed in participants?
What variable in the Milgram study modifies the level of obedience observed in participants?
In the context of social influence, what is meant by 'engaged followership' following Milgram’s research?
In the context of social influence, what is meant by 'engaged followership' following Milgram’s research?
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What optimal conditions for reducing prejudice were proposed by Allport’s contact hypothesis?
What optimal conditions for reducing prejudice were proposed by Allport’s contact hypothesis?
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What term refers to the collective unconsciousness experienced during group behavior?
What term refers to the collective unconsciousness experienced during group behavior?
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Which factor does not contribute to the Authoritarian personality according to Adorno et al.?
Which factor does not contribute to the Authoritarian personality according to Adorno et al.?
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How does proximity of the victim affect obedience in Milgram's study?
How does proximity of the victim affect obedience in Milgram's study?
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Which of the following best describes Zimbardo's findings on deindividuation?
Which of the following best describes Zimbardo's findings on deindividuation?
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What is meant by 'internalization' in the context of Newcomb's Bennington study?
What is meant by 'internalization' in the context of Newcomb's Bennington study?
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Which condition is essential for the success of the Contact Hypothesis according to Allport?
Which condition is essential for the success of the Contact Hypothesis according to Allport?
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What does Social Identity Theory primarily emphasize?
What does Social Identity Theory primarily emphasize?
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What is the primary theme of suggestibility in crowd behavior according to LeBon?
What is the primary theme of suggestibility in crowd behavior according to LeBon?
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Which factor is most likely to decrease obedience in Milgram's experiment?
Which factor is most likely to decrease obedience in Milgram's experiment?
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What does the term 'engaged followership' suggest in relation to authority?
What does the term 'engaged followership' suggest in relation to authority?
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Study Notes
Crowd Behavior
- Gustave LeBon (1895) coined the term "psychological crowd" to describe a group of individuals who lose their sense of individuality and become more susceptible to suggestion and conformity.
- LeBon identified three key characteristics of the "psychological crowd": anonymity, contagion, and suggestibility.
- Anonymity: Individuals in a crowd feel anonymous and less accountable for their actions.
- Contagion: Emotional states and behaviors spread rapidly through the crowd.
- Suggestibility: Individuals in a crowd are more likely to follow the suggestions of others.
- Group Mind: LeBon also suggested that a "group mind" emerges in crowds, a collective unconsciousness where individual thoughts and identities become subsumed into the collective.
Deindividuation
- Philip Zimbardo's (1970) research on deindividuation suggested that individuals in groups may behave more aggressively due to reduced self-awareness and accountability.
- Johnson and Downing (1979) found the opposite, suggesting that deindividuation can lead to less aggression, potentially due to a diffusion of responsibility within the group.
- Social Norms: Both Zimbardo and Johnson & Downing's research highlights the influence of social norms on individual behavior within a crowd.
The Authoritarian Personality
- Adorno et al. (1950) proposed the concept of the Authoritarian Personality, characterized by a rigid adherence to authority, intolerance of difference, and prejudice towards minority groups.
- Psychoanalytic explanations: Childhood traumas and a repressive family environment can foster rigid personality structures and a strong need for order and control.
- Social and economic explanations: A strict, disciplining educational environment or economic and political insecurities can also contribute to the development of authoritarian personality traits.
- Individuals with authoritarian personalities are likely to:
- Submit to authority figures.
- Resist change.
- Exhibit contempt and aggression toward norm-violators.
- Display prejudice against minority groups.
Obedience to Authority
- Obedience to legitimate authority is a universal social norm, often aligning with our individual attitudes.
Obedience to Authority Against Our Attitudes
- Stanley Milgram's (1963) famous obedience study demonstrated how individuals can obey authority figures even when it conflicts with their personal beliefs and values.
Variations in Milgram's Study
- Milgram's research explored several factors influencing obedience, including:
- Proximity of the victim: Obedience decreased as the victim's proximity increased.
- Proximity of the experimenter: Obedience was higher when the experimenter was physically present.
- Presence of obedient others: Obedience increased when other participants were seen to obey.
- Presence of disobedient others: Obedience decreased when other participants openly disobeyed.
The Afterlife of Milgram's Studies
- Milgram's research has been reinterpreted to highlight the influence of ideology, internalized goals, and engaged followership, as opposed to blind conformity.
Newcomb's Bennington Study (1935 - 1939)
- The Bennington study examined the long-term impact of a reference group (in this case, the Bennington College environment) on student attitudes.
- The study demonstrated that individuals often internalize (or privately conform to) the values and beliefs of their reference groups.
Social Categorization
- Humans categorize social groups into "us" (in-group) and "them" (out-group).
- This categorization process can lead to prejudice and discrimination against out-groups.
Social Identity Theory
- Henri Tajfel (1979) proposed Social Identity Theory.
- Social Identity Theory emphasizes the importance of social categorization and group membership for individual identity.
- Key elements of Social Identity Theory:
- Social Categorization: Individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups.
- Social Identity: Individuals derive a sense of identity and belonging from their group memberships.
- Social Comparison: Individuals compare their group with other groups to maintain a positive social identity.
Contact Hypothesis
- Gordon Allport (1954) proposed the contact hypothesis, suggesting that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and discrimination.
- However, Allport stressed that the contact must occur under optimal conditions:
- Cooperation: Groups must work together towards a common goal.
- Common Goals: Groups must share a common goal that requires interdependence.
- Equal Status: Groups must have equal status and power in the situation.
- Supportive Norms and Authorities: The interaction must be supported by social norms and authorities.
Crowd Behavior
- Gustave Le Bon (1895) described the "psychological crowd"
- Anonymity: Individuals feel less accountable for their actions in a crowd.
- Contagion: Emotions and behaviors spread rapidly within a crowd.
- Suggestibility: Individuals are more susceptible to influence and persuasion in a crowd.
- "Group mind": Le Bon believed that crowds exhibit a collective unconsciousness, leading to irrational and impulsive behavior.
Deindividuation
- Philip Zimbardo (1970) found that individuals in deindividuated states (e.g., wearing masks) showed increased aggression.
- Johnson & Downing (1979) found that wearing a nurse's uniform led to less aggression.
- Social Norms: Deindividuation can lead to a weakening of social norms, influencing behavior.
The Authoritarian Personality
- Theodore Adorno et al. (1950) proposed the concept of the authoritarian personality.
- Psychoanalytic explanations: Childhood traumas and repressive family environments contribute to authoritarian tendencies.
- Social and economic explanations: Strict education, economic and political insecurities, and competition for scarce resources foster authoritarianism.
- Characteristics: Submission to authority, resistance to change, contempt and aggression towards norm-violators, and prejudice.
Obedience to Authority
- Obedience to legitimate authority is a universal social norm.
- Individuals typically obey authority figures, even if their own attitudes differ.
Obedience to Authority Against Our Attitudes
- Stanley Milgram (1963) conducted a famous experiment on obedience to authority, showing that individuals would administer electric shocks to a learner, even when they believed it was harmful, if instructed to do so by an authority figure.
Variations in Milgram's Study
- Proximity of the victim: Closer proximity to the victim led to lower obedience.
- Proximity of the experimenter: Closer proximity to the experimenter led to higher obedience.
- Presence of obedient others: Observing others' obedience increased participants' obedience.
- Presence of disobedient others: Observing others' disobedience decreased participants' obedience.
The Afterlife of Milgram's Study
- Milgram's study does not suggest blind obedience.
- Obedience can be influenced by factors including ideology, internalization of goals, and engaged followership.
Newcomb Study
- Theodore Newcomb (1935-1939) studied the long-term impact of reference groups on attitudes.
- Students at Bennington College showed changes in their attitudes over time, influenced by the liberal environment of the college.
- Internalization (Private conformity): The attitudes adopted from the reference group became internalized, suggesting a long-lasting impact.
Social Categorization
- Individuals naturally categorize themselves and others into social groups (e.g., "us" vs. "them").
Social Identity Theory
- Henri Tajfel (1979) proposed social identity theory.
- Social categorization: Individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups.
- Social identity: The social group to which an individual belongs becomes part of their self-concept.
- Social comparison: Individuals compare their own social group with other groups, striving for positive distinctiveness.
- I = We: Individuals' sense of self is interconnected with their social identity ("we" rather than just "I").
Contact Hypothesis
- Gordon Allport (1954) proposed the contact hypothesis.
- Intergroup contact can reduce prejudice under optimal conditions:
- Cooperation between groups.
- Shared goals.
- Equal status among groups.
- Supportive norms and authorities.
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