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What characteristic distinguishes Charophytes from other green algae?

  • They consist of unicellular organisms only.
  • They gave rise to land plants. (correct)
  • They lack photosynthetic pigments.
  • They are exclusively marine species.
  • Which of the following statements about Volvox is true?

  • Volvox has a greater number of cells than Ulva.
  • Volvox forms a solid multicellular structure.
  • Volvox is a unicellular organism.
  • Volvox demonstrates cellular specialization. (correct)
  • What is a common use of agarose derived from Rhodophyta?

  • To enhance flavor in food products.
  • As an energy source in cellular respiration.
  • As a solidifier in nutrient culture media. (correct)
  • To replace dairy products in ice cream.
  • What type of lifecycle do some colonial chlorophytes like Volvox exhibit?

    <p>Both asexual and sexual reproduction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following groups includes multicellular organisms specifically among green algae?

    <p>Both Chlorophyta and Charophytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Eukaryotic cells possess a more complex cytoskeleton.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory of endosymbiosis explains the origin of which cellular structures?

    <p>Chloroplasts and mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group is not classified under the Domain Eukarya?

    <p>Bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the cells found in early eukaryotic microfossils?

    <p>Presence of a nuclear envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is part of the SAR supergroup under Protista?

    <p>Dinoflagellates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process describes the living together in close association of two different organisms where one lives inside the other?

    <p>Endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following groups includes organisms like Euglena and Trypanosoma?

    <p>Kinetoplastids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant feature developed from infolding of the plasma membrane in ancestral eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Nuclear envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which kingdom under Domain Eukarya is primarily responsible for photosynthesis?

    <p>Plantae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of organism might be studied in a course on botany?

    <p>Land plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process led to the formation of red algae from cyanobacteria?

    <p>Endosymbiosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the reproduction process in Euglenids?

    <p>Mitosis with intact nuclear membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do chloroplasts and mitochondria replicate?

    <p>By binary fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the protist group?

    <p>Polyphyletic with high diversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature distinguishes Euglenozoans within Excavata?

    <p>Unique feeding groove</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes flagella from cilia in protists?

    <p>Length and number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about mixotrophs?

    <p>They utilize both phototrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organisms is an example of a parasitic kinetoplastid?

    <p>Trypanosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a prominent component of the cell wall in red algae?

    <p>Cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of locomotion is primarily seen in amoebas?

    <p>Pseudopods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do protists typically exhibit diversity?

    <p>Morphological variations and modes of nutrition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of sexual reproduction in protists?

    <p>Allows for frequent genetic recombination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of cilia in protists?

    <p>Feeding and locomotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the supergroup SAR?

    <p>Comprises three branches: Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of algin produced by giant kelps and other brown algae?

    <p>Stabilizer in food products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is NOT a characteristic of diatoms?

    <p>Presence of cilia for movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What environmental condition can lead to red tide blooms caused by dinoflagellates?

    <p>Nutrient runoff</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do ciliates, such as Paramecium, accomplish movement?

    <p>Through cilia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about apicomplexans is true?

    <p>They are spore-forming animal parasites.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the apical complex in Apicomplexans?

    <p>To invade host cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group does the term 'Stramenopila' belong to?

    <p>Supergroup: SAR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the locomotion of Rhizaria?

    <p>Flowing cytoplasmic projections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major ecological role of diatoms?

    <p>They serve as food for fish.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is false regarding the classification of green algae?

    <p>All green algae are freshwater organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary composition of the shells formed by foraminifera?

    <p>Calcium carbonate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is shared by all members of the Supergroup SAR?

    <p>They include both autotrophs and heterotrophs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which environment do dinoflagellates typically thrive?

    <p>Aquatic environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of diatomaceous earth?

    <p>It's used for industrial filtration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered the most promising long-term solution for managing diseases caused by parasites?

    <p>Development of a vaccine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is eradicating all mosquito vectors considered challenging?

    <p>Many eradication methods can harm the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential drawback of using treatments to kill parasites?

    <p>The parasite can become resistant to new poisons or drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of a vaccine makes it preferable over drugs and pesticides in the long run?

    <p>It reduces the need for ongoing treatments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of biological classification, which of the following groups includes Euglena?

    <p>Excavata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about drug resistance in parasites is accurate?

    <p>Drug resistance can develop over time with repeated treatments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group in the Protista cladogram is known for containing several types of algae?

    <p>Stramenopila</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a feature of the Protista Supergroup Excavata?

    <p>It includes organisms with flagella for movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Protist

    • Protists are classified as eukaryotes, which are organisms with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
    • Protists are grouped together because they are not fungi, plants, or animals, rather they are a diverse group and have no unifying characteristics.
    • Protists vary widely in size, shape, and mode of nutrition, ranging from single-celled organisms to multicellular forms.
    • Protists can have different types of symmetries, and exhibit a range of nutritional strategies, including photosynthesis, heterotrophy, and mixotrophy.

    Five Supergroups of Protists

    • Protists are polyphyletic, meaning they do not include the most recent common ancestor and all its descendants.
    • There are five supergroups of protists: Excavata, SAR (Stramenopila, Alveolata, Rhizaria), Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta, and Archaeplastida.

    Early Eukaryotic Origins

    • Eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotes in two significant ways: the presence of a more complex cytoskeleton and compartmentalization (nucleus & organelles).
    • The earliest eukaryotic fossils date back about 1.5 billion years ago (BYA).

    The Origin of the Nucleus and ER

    • The nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) originated from infoldings of the plasma membrane.
    • The nuclear envelope eventually enclosed DNA to form the nucleus.

    The Endosymbiotic Theory

    • The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells likely originated from engulfed prokaryotic cells.
    • Aerobic bacteria were engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells, which then evolved into mitochondria.
    • Photosynthetic bacteria were engulfed by other ancestral eukaryotic cells, which then evolved into chloroplasts.
      • This process is called endosymbiosis, which is an intimate, long-term association between two different species.

    The Evolution of Brown and Red Algae

    • Red algae likely originated from a eukaryotic cell engulfing cyanobacteria.
    • Brown Algae likely originated from a eukaryotic cell engulfing red algae.
    • It is possible that all chloroplasts derived from a single line of cyanobacteria.

    Evidence for Endosymbiosis

    • Many symbiotic relationships exist in nature.
    • Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own circular DNA, similar to bacterial DNA in size and organization.
    • Ribosomes inside mitochondria are similar to bacterial ribosomes.
    • Chloroplasts and mitochondria replicate through binary fission, not mitosis, which is a process that evolved in eukaryotes.

    Cell Surface Variation in Protists

    • Some protists lack a cell wall, such as Amoeba and Euglena.
      • Euglena has protein strips that surround its plasma membrane.
    • Other protists have cell walls, such as red algae (cellulose cell walls) and diatoms (silica cell walls).

    Locomotion in Protists

    • Protists use a variety of methods to move.
    • ** Flagella** are long, whip-like structures that propel cells through water.
    • Cilia are short, numerous hairs that are used for movement and feeding.
    • Pseudopods are temporary projections of cytoplasm that allow protists to move and engulf food.

    Nutrition in Protists

    • Autotrophs produce their own food through photosynthesis.
    • Heterotrophs obtain energy from organic material created by other organisms.
      • Phagotrophs engulf particles of food into food vacuoles.
      • Mixotrophs can both produce food through photosynthesis and obtain it from external sources.

    Reproduction in Protists

    • Asexual Reproduction is the primary mode of reproduction in protists.
      • It involves a single parent cell that divides to produce genetically identical offspring.
    • Sexual Reproduction also occurs in protists, which includes:
      • The fusion of haploid gametes produced by meiosis.
      • Genetic recombination, which increases diversity.

    Multicellularity in Protists

    • Multicellularity originated in protists.
    • Multicellularity can lead to specialization.
      • A thallus is a well-formed multicellular structure.

    Supergroup: Excavata

    • Excavata is characterized by a feeding groove that looks like it was excavated from the side of the cell body.
    • Excavata includes Euglenids (Euglena) and Kinetoplastids (Trypanosoma).

    Supergroup: Excavata: Group: Euglenozoa

    • Euglenids are a diverse group that includes both free-living and parasitic forms.
      • Euglena.
    • Kinetoplastids are parasitic protists that have a unique, single mitochondrion.
      • Trypanosoma.
      • Trypanosoma causes diseases such as Leishmaniasis, African sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease.

    Supergroup: SAR

    • SAR is composed of three groups: Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Stramenopila

    • Stramenopila includes brown algae and diatoms.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Stramenopila: Subgroup: Brown Algae

    • Brown algae are a prominent group of seaweeds.
      • They contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which gives them their characteristic brown colour.
      • Giant kelp is a large and important species of brown algae.
      • Brown algae produce algin, a substance used as a thickener and emulsifier in various products.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Stramenopila: Subgroup: Diatoms

    • Diatoms are photosynthetic, single-celled organisms with unique double shells made of silica.
    • Diatoms are an important food source for marine organisms.
    • Diatomaceous earth is a product made from the fossilized shells of diatoms, which has various industrial uses.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Alveolata

    • Alveolates are characterized by flattened sacs called alveoli stacked in layers below their plasma membrane.
    • Alveolates include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Alveolata: Subgroup: Dinoflagellates

    • Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic, unicellular organisms with two distinct flagella.
    • Some dinoflagellates are luminescent, producing twinkling or flashing effects in the sea at night.
    • Dinoflagellate blooms, also known as red tides, are caused by an excessive increase in dinoflagellate populations, which can release toxins that cause harmful effects to various organisms, including humans.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Alveolata: Subgroup: Apicomplexans

    • Apicomplexans are parasitic protists characterized by an apical complex, an organellar arrangement that allows them to invade host cells.
    • Plasmodium is an apicomplexan that causes malaria, a disease transmitted by mosquitoes.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Alveolata: Subgroup: Ciliates

    • Ciliates are protists with large numbers of cilia arranged in longitudinal rows or spirals around the cell.
    • Ciliates are characterized by having two nuclei:
      • A micronucleus used for sexual reproduction.
      • A macronucleus essential for daily functions.
    • Paramecium is a well-known and often-studied example of a ciliate.

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Rhizaria

    • Rhizaria are heterotrophic protists that use pseudopods to move.
    • Rhizaria includes:
      • Radiolaria (marine).
      • Foraminifera (marine).
      • Cercozoa (soil).

    Supergroup: SAR: Group: Rhizaria: Subgroup: Foraminifera

    • Foraminifera are marine protists that have shells made of calcium carbonate.
    • Foraminifera play a role in the formation of limestone.

    Supergroup: Archaeplastida

    • Archaeplastida includes red algae, green algae, and land plants.
    • Green algae are divided into two lineages:
      • Chlorophyta.
      • Charophyta, which are the closest relatives to land plants.

    Supergroup: Archaeplastida: Group: Rhodophyta (Red Algae)

    • Red algae are multicellular, marine protists.
    • They contain phycobilins, accessory photosynthetic pigments that give them their characteristic red color.
    • Agarose, a substance derived from red algae, is used in various applications.

    Supergroup: Archaeplastida: Group: Chlorophyta (Green Algae)

    • Chlorophyta is a diverse group of green algae that include:
      • Unicellular forms, such as Chlamydomonas.
      • Colonial forms, such as Volvox.
      • Multicellular forms, such as Ulva.

    Supergroup: Archaeplastida: Group: Charophyta (Green Algae)

    • Charophyta are the closest relatives to land plants.
      • They share many similarities with land plants in terms of their biochemistry and structural features.

    Cellular Specialization in Colonial Chlorophyta

    • Cellular specialization is a defining feature of multicellularity.
    • Volvox is a colonial green algae with a hollow sphere made of a single layer of cells.
      • Some cells reproduce asexually, while others reproduce sexually.
    • Ulva is a multicellular green algae that forms a complex thallus.

    Vaccine Development

    • Vaccine development is the most promising way to combat the spread of parasitic diseases in the long run.
    • Vaccines provide long-term protection against parasites.
    • Vaccines eliminate the need for harmful pesticides or drugs, which can lead to drug resistance.

    Challenges of Eradication

    • Eradicating mosquito vectors is difficult.
    • Eradication methods can be harmful to the environment.
    • Parasite resistance is a real concern with drug treatments.

    Protist Cladogram

    • Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms.
    • The Protist cladogram shows the evolutionary relationships between different protist groups.
    • Protists are classified into supergroups, groups, and subgroups.

    Supergroup Amoebozoa

    • Amoeba proteus is an example of a protist found in the Amoebozoa supergroup.

    Supergroup Excavata

    • Euglena is an example of a protist found in the Excavata supergroup. This group includes Euglenozoa and Parabasalids.
    • Termite flagellates are parabasalids.
    • Leishmania donovani is a parabasalid which causes Leishmaniasis.
    • The Excavata group includes organisms with flagella.

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