Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III)

• At the Congress of Vienna, Lombardy and Venetia went to Austria.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III)

• Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, he was raised with the goal of restoring his family's power.
• After unsuccessful revolts in 1836 and 1840 against Louis Philippe, he was imprisoned but escaped in 1846.
• In 1848, he won the presidency of the Second Republic by a significant margin.
• As president, he had to share power with the National Assembly.
• When the Assembly wouldn't amend the constitution to allow him a second term, he conspired with army officers.
• On December 2, 1851, he illegally seized power, suppressing protests with the army.
• He reinstated universal male suffrage and used it to secure a ten-year presidential term.
• Through a plebiscite, he became a hereditary emperor.
• His dictatorship involved a secret police, press censorship, and state-controlled elections.
• New investment banks and extensive railroad construction were encouraged.
• The French economy grew under his rule, becoming the second largest globally.
• Workers gained the rights to form unions and strike in the 1860s.
• He appointed his ministers, while assembly members were elected every six years by universal male suffrage.
• The electoral system deteriorated in the 1860s, leading to middle-class liberal opposition.
• In response, he liberalized the government, granting the assembly more powers and allowing greater freedom for opposition candidates.
• A new constitution was granted, combining a parliamentary regime with a hereditary emperor as head of state.
• He supported other countries in their pursuit of independence.
• The Suez Canal was constructed to boost trade.
• The middle class grew and prospered under his leadership.
• He believed the government should represent the people and support them economically.
• The state and its leader, in his view, had a responsibility to provide jobs and stimulate the economy.

Fab 5 of Italian Unification

• Consisted of Mazzini, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel, Cavour, and Pope Pius IX.
• Mazzini ("The Heart"): A romantic patriot who envisioned a democratic republic with universal male suffrage and inspired people through his writing.
• Garibaldi ("The Sword"): A romantic patriot, beloved in southern Italy, whose "Red Shirts" led a military campaign to liberate the south, which he then handed over to Victor Emmanuel.
• Victor Emmanuel ("The Face"): The King of Piedmont-Sardinia, who became the ruler of a unified Italy through a constitutional monarchy.
• Cavour ("The Brains"): The Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, who aimed to strengthen the nation by unifying northern Italy and later decided to include the south.
• Pope Pius IX ("The Spoiler"): Opposed unification after Mazzini ousted him from Rome in 1848, and declared Piedmont-Sardinia an enemy of the Church.

Steps of Italian Unification

• Piedmont-Sardinia gained favor with Napoleon III and France.
• The state fought in the Crimean War alongside Britain and France.
• An agreement was made: if France fought Austria, Britain and France would join however France would get Nice and Savoy in return for Piedmont-Sardinia gaining Venetia and Lombardy.
• Piedmont-Sardinia allied with France and went to war with Austria.
• Napoleon III got cold feet due to Piedmont-Sardinia's strength and public disapproval.
• France withdrew from the war and struck a deal with Austria, with Lombardy being ceded to Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Piedmont-Sardinia ignored Napoleon's betrayal and bribed him to stay out of unification.
• Nice and Savoy were given to France for staying out.
• In 1860, Garibaldi liberated the Two Sicilies in the South and yielded them to Emmanuel.
• Cavour stopped Garibaldi from invading Rome to avoid war with France, which had troops there to protect the Pope.
• Venetia was added in 1866 and Rome in 1870.
• Russia defeated Austria and took Venetia, keeping Italy out of Prussia's German unification efforts.
• In 1870, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia, uniting northern and southern German states against a common enemy which led to troops deserted Rome and Italy took it.

Kaiser Wilhelm I

• King of Prussia and believed in doubling the size of the army and raising the defense budget and taxes.
• He hired Otto von Bismarck.
• Became president of the North German Confederation.
• Proclaimed Emperor of Germany after unification in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles after a patriotic war with France.

Otto Von Bismarck

• Born into the landowning aristocracy.
• Possessed a strong personality and a desire for power.
• Proud of his Junker heritage and devoted to Prussian sovereignty.
• Pragmatic.
• Became a high-ranking diplomat for the Prussian government.
• In 1862, he became chief minister and asserted that the government would rule without Parliament's consent.
• Lashed out at middle-class opposition.
• The Prussian bureaucracy collected taxes even when Parliament refused to approve the budget.
• He wanted the old order to reconcile with the liberal middle class and nationalist movement.
• Created a federal constitution for the North German Confederation.
• Opened the door to popular participation.
• Requested Parliament to pass a special indemnity bill to approve actions he had already taken.

Steps of German Unification

• Initiated the Austro-Prussian War, resulting in southern German states allying with Prussia.
• Austria agreed to stay out of German unification efforts.
• Created the North German Confederation.
• Fostered a patriotic war against France to unite northern and southern German states against a common enemy.
• Ems Dispatch: This was sent to deny the withdrawal of Wilhelm I’s relatives’ candidacy for King of Spain, altered by Bismarck to sound rude and led France to declare war on Prussia.
• Results of the Franco-Prussian War: France had to accept Bismarck's harsh peace terms, including an indemnity of 5 billion francs and ceding Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and Wilhelm I was proclaimed emperor at Versailles.

Paris Commune

• Arose in March 1871.
• Vaguely radical, with leaders wanting to govern Paris independently from the French countryside.
• National Assembly leader Adolphe Thiers crushed the commune with the army.
• People accepted the republic because it caused the least division.

Bismarck’s Kulturkampf

• Political conflicts initiated by Bismarck against the Catholic Church.
• Aims were to control education and church appointments.
• Initiatives such as the May Laws of 1873 were passed to restrict the powers of the church and punish opponents.
• Faced resistance and had to repeal some laws or let them lapse.
• Attacks on the socialist movement and the ban on the Social Democratic Party were not very effective.
• Bismarck adopted social reforms like a national social security system to appease the liberal middle class and gain workers' support.
• Russia was defeated by France, Great Britain, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War, so the "Great Reforms" in Russia were prompted

1905 Revolution in Russia

• Causes: Russia was defeated by Japan in September of 1905, factory workers organized in a radical movement, business and professional classes wanted a representative regime, peasants were suffering from poverty, and nationalist sentiment was growing.
• "Bloody Sunday": Workers attempted to peacefully present reforms but were shot by troops.
• The October Manifesto was released, granting full civil rights and promising an elected Duma (parliament) with real legislative power.
• The opposition was split.
• Middle-class leaders helped suppress the uprising.

Tanzimat Reforms in Ottoman Empire

• Aims to remake the empire on a Western European model.
• Granted equality before the law and modernized administration and the military.
• Free importation of foreign goods and allows foreign merchants to operate freely.
• The Young Turks, consisting of Turkish exiles in Europe and young army officers in Istanbul, seized control of the Ottoman Empire in 1908.

Theodore Hertzel

• Led the Zionist movement to establish a Jewish homeland in Israel.
• Embraced German nationalism but resigned due to anti-Semitism.
• Published "The Jewish State: An Attempt at a Modern Solution to the Jewish Question" in 1896.
• Gained support from youthful idealists and poor Jews.
• Paved the way for the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which expressed British government support for a national home for Jewish people.
• Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason.
• His family fought to reopen the case.
• France was split apart.
• Dreyfus was declared innocent.
• Republican sentiment against the church was revived.
• The Liberal Party in Britain accomplished many welfare measures between 1906 and 1914.
• The Liberal Party raised taxes on the rich to pay for social measures.

Motivations behind New Imperialism

• Economic resources, nationalism, religious motives, overpopulation, and the scramble for Africa.
• "White Man’s Burden"is the racism belief that white men have a duty to civilize other races because they are superior.

Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

• European powers colonized Africa for trade and partitioned Africa.
• Cecil Rhodes founded De Beers Mining Company and was Prime Minister of Cape Colony, known for the exploitation of indigenous people.

J.A. Hobson

• Believed imperialism was due to the greed of the wealthy, not national interest.
• Advocated for progressive taxation and redistribution of wealth.
• Criticized capitalism.
• Leopold II of Belgium owned Congo as a personal fiefdom, aiming to exploit its resources and international pressure forced him to cede Congo to the Belgian government.
• British settlers came into conflict with the Dutch Boers, the Zulu, and the German Empire over control of South Africa.
• Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two African countries to remain politically independent by the end of the 19th century.
• As a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898, the US acquired the Philippine Islands as a large new Asian colony.
• France took control of Indochina in the 1880s.
• Matthew Perry, a US commodore, came to Japan in 1853 and opened it up.

Japan

• Recognized need to modernize and rapidly industrialized in response to European imperialism.
• Meiji Restoration: In 1867, a coalition led by patriotic samurai seized control of the government without bloodshed and restored the political power of the emperor.
• Resisted and attempted to drive out the foreigners, but eventually a Western-style republic was created.

Opium Wars

• First Opium War (1839-1842): Britain defeated China, leading to the Treaty of Nanjing, which forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain and grant rights to Britain.
• Second Opium War (1856-1860): Led to the Treaty of Tientsin and further opening of China.
• Sun Yat-sen founded the Republic of China and overthrew Chinese Imperialism.
• Boxer Rebellion: A secret society of Boxers rebelled and Peking was occupied and plundered by foreign armies, leading to the imposition of a heavy indemnity.
• Korea became a colony of Japan in 1910.
• Local rulers and the British military resisted British imperialism took over India.
• Sepoy Mutiny: The result of Muslim and Hindu mercenaries revolted however they were crushed by loyal native troops, resulting in Britain ruling India directly beginning in 1858.