Local Networking Hardware

Lesson 4: Comparing Local Networking Hardware

Objectives

• Study notes on Comparing network types.
• Study notes on Comparing networking hardware.
• Study notes on Explaining network cable types
• Study notes on Comparing wireless networking types

Network Types

• Local Area Network (LAN) connects devices in a limited area like a home, office, or school.
• LANs facilitate resource sharing like printers ,files, and internet connections.
• Ethernet cables and Wi-Fi are commonly used within LANs.
• Example: A school or campus computer lab is a LAN.
• Ethernet standards for LAN cabling follow the IEEE 802.3 standards.
• Ethernet specifications adhere to the XBASE-Y format with "X" representing data rate and "Y" indicating the cable type.
• Examples of Ethernet standards include 100BASE-T (Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbps), 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet at 1000 Mbps), and 10GBASE-T (10 Gigabit Ethernet at 10 Gbps).
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) connects devices wirelessly using radio waves within limited areas like homes, schools, or offices.
• WLAN eliminates the necessity for physical cables.
• Wi-Fi standards (IEEE 802.11) enables wireless network connections.
• Wi-Fi standards ensure devices connect to a network wirelessly and specifies how these devices should communicate.
• Common Wi-Fi standards include 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6).
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) serves an area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city.
• MANs are often used by universities, or city governments.
• MANs use high-speed connections like fiber optics.
• MANs connect multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
• Wide area networks (WANs) covers large geographical areas, such as different cities or countries.
• WANs involves the connection of multiple LANs.
• Internet serves as the biggest example of a WAN.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs) grant internet access.
• Technologies like leased lines, satellites, and public networks are used in WANs.
• Personal Area Networks (PANs) connects devices within a short range (few meters).
• PAN are generally used for personal devices such as smartphones, tablets, and wearables.
• Technologies like Bluetooth and infrared are common within PANs.

SOHO and Enterprise Networks

• A Small Office Home Office (SOHO) is a networks, single appliance provides Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Internet connectivity.
• Enterprise networks has reliability and scalability and can be modular in design.

Datacenters and Storage Area Networks

• Data centers are dedicated facilities for hosting servers.
• Data centers are used by businesses and organizations with networking, power, climate control, and physical access control features.
• Example: AWS is a global provider of cloud computing services hosting data centers worldwide.
• Storage area network (SAN) is a network hosting configurable pool of storage devices.
• Clients of the SAN network are application servers, not ordinary workstations, and they treat storage as logical disks.
• Fiber Channel and Internet SCSI (iSCSI) are used in SANs.
• Example: A financial institution is an example of a SAN to manage and store large volumes of transaction data.

Network Interface Cards

• Ethernet communication uses either copper cables (electrical signals) or fiber optic cables (light pulses).
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) offers the physical layer connection to the network.
• NICs has a transceiver port for cable connection.
• Data signals must be formatted for digital processing.
• Every device on a local network needs a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address to communicate.
• Ethernet protocol structures data for transmission.
• Every NIC has a unique MAC address.
• Ethernet frames include source and destination MAC addresses.
• NICs have the following:
  • Media type (transceiver), either electrical or optical
  • Number of ports on the NIC
• Framing and addressing in the NIC, including the MAC address
• Packets use hex notation.

Patch Panels

• Patch panels is the 'Back' cabling from wall ports that is terminated to insulation displacement connector (IDC) blocks.
• 'Front' are modular RJ-45 connectors.
• Use patch cords connect to switch ports.
• The port on the patch panel corresponds to one on the switch.

Hubs

• Hubs are star topology wiring.
• Hubs are concentrators and repeat signals over all cabled segments.
• All hub ports are in the same collision domain.
• Performance is reduced by contention because hubs use half-duplex 10/100 Mbps Ethernet only.

Switches

• Switches are same star topology-each host cabled to a switch port.
• Switches forward traffic to specific destination port by learning MAC addresses.
• Each port can operate at full-duplex and full speed.
• Switches are commonly used for Gigabit Ethernet.
• Unmanaged switches works without configurations.
• Managed switch has a configuration interface, additional functionality and enterprise modular switches, and a web or command-line interface.

Power over Ethernet

• Power over Ethernet (PoE) allows both power and data to be transmitted over a single Ethernet cable. -802.3af (PoE) provides ~13W power output and 15.4W per port and suitable for low-power devices. -VoIP phones, and basic security cameras are examples of applications. -802.3at (PoE+) provides ~25W power output and 30W per port for devices requiring more bandwidth and advanced features. -PTZ security cameras, video conferencing equipment, and Wi-Fi 6 access points are examples of its application. -802.3bt (Ultra PoE) - Type 3 provides ~51W power output and 60W per port, used for more demanding smart devices. -Smart lighting systems, interactive kiosks, and high-end access points are some applications. -802.3bt (Ultra PoE) - Type 4 provides ~73W power output and 100W per port, supporting power-intensive applications and emerging technologies. -Digital signage, industrial automation devices, and medical equipment are common applications.
• A PoE-enabled switch has built-in PoE capabilities providing endspan power sourcing equipment (PSE) used for IP cameras, VoIP phones, and access points.
• A PoE Injector a midspan power sourcing equipment (PSE) is a standalone device that adds power to network connection.
• Placed between the standard switch and the powered device.

Cable Types

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) uses copper wire cabling carrying electrical signals.
• Balanced wire pairs are twisted at different rates to reduce interference.
• UTP has maximum distance up to 100m due to signal attenuation.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has screening or shielding for extra protection against interference.
• STP is used for 10G Ethernet+ in datacenters ensure higher reliability.
• STP is also used when cabling is placed near external interference sources.
• Screened STP cable has one thin outer foil shield around all pairs, while fully shielded cabling has a braided outer screen and foil-shielded pairs.
• Cat 5 has a Max. Transfer Rate of 100 Mbps, Max. Distance of 100 m (328 ft) and is used for 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet).
• Cat 5e has a Max. Transfer Rate of 1 Gbps, Max. Distance of 100 m (328 ft) and is used for 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet).
• Cat 6 has a Max. Transfer Rate of 1 Gbps, Max. Distance of 100 m (328 ft) and also used for 10GBASE-T (10 Gigabit Ethernet) for data.
• Cat 6A has a Max. Transfer Rate of 10 Gbps, Max. Distance of 100 m (328 ft) and is used for 10GBASE-T (10 Gigabit Ethernet) for data.
• RJ-45 is the standard connector for Ethernet networking with 8 metal pins.
• RJ-45 ports are found on network devices like computers, switches, and routers.
• Ethernet Wiring Standards TIA/EIA-568A and 568B standard.
• TIA/EIA stands for Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Alliance.
• Standards define proper network wiring and communication.
• T568A and T568B standards define the order of the color-coded wires inside Ethernet cables.
• Both use the same wire pairs but arrange them differently in the RJ-45 connector.
• T568B Ethernet Wiring Standard defines the color coding and arrangement of wires inside an RJ-45 connector.
• T568B is widely used in commercial networks and its specifications on specific pin number and function.
• Wire Pairing and Pin Assignments for 8 wires groups into 4 pairs.
• Standard Ethernet (10/100 Mbps) need two pairs for communication.
• Higher-speed Ethernet (Gigabit Ethernet) uses all four pairs for data transmission.
• Straight-Through Cables on Both Ends – T568A-T568A or T568B-T568B.
• Connect different types of devices: PC to switch; router to switch.
• Crossover Cables has T568A on One End, and T568B on the Other End.
• Used to connect similar devices: PC to PC; switch to switch; router to router.
• Patch cords use RJ-45 connectors.
• Structured cable is terminated to insulation displacement connect (IDC) blocks in wall ports and patch panels.
• Cable stripper removes insulation.
• Punchdown tool terminates to IDCs.
• Crimper is used to Add RJ-45 connector.
• Cable testers is used to Validate and test cable installation and to verify termination.
• Toner probe traces a cable.
• Loopback plug tests the NIC or switch port.

Network Taps

• Capturing network traffic is essential for monitoring and troubleshooting network issues using packet sniffers.
• Network Taps and Mirror ports are commonly used methods for traffic capture, like Wireshark.
• A passive test access point (TAP) is an unpowered device that splits network signals without affecting traffic.
• TAP allows real-time traffic monitoring, capturing every frame, including errors, in fiber optic networks where optical splitters copy signals.
• Passive TAP does not introduce latency or alter packets.
• Active TAPs are powered devices that regenerate signals to ensure data integrity used in gigabit Ethernet.
• Can introduce a point of failure if the power source fails.
• A mirror port, is also called a SPAN (Switched Port Analyzer) port and copies traffic from one or more ports.
• Used for monitoring without additional hardware.
• Unlike TAPs, mirror ports may drop packets under high loads.

Copper Cabling Installation Considerations

• Copper cabling must comply with local building regulations and fire codes, specific cable types are required for different installation scenarios.
• Plenum Space used for Installation to Plenum Spaces is a void in buildings used for HVAC systems.
• This is found in false ceilings or raised floors.
• Allows running communication cables and acts as an effective conduit for fire due to airflow and lack of fire barriers.
• Plenum Cable and Fire Safety are fire-resistant and low-smoke-emitting cables are required in plenum spaces.
  • Self-extinguishing to prevent fire spread.
  • Low smoke emission for the safety during fire incidents.
  • Designed to withstand higher temperatures if HVAC is present.
• Outside Plant (OSP) used for Installation. Cable exposed to environmental factor includes sunlight (UV exposure), temperature extremes, and moisture/damp conditions.
• Aerial Cable Installation where aerial cables are suspended between poles or anchors.
• UV rays degrade PVC insulation over time.
• Temperature variations affect cable durability.
• Moisture exposure causes damage.
• Conduit Installation protects cables by enclosing them underground to shield against physical damage.
• Reduces exposure to temperature changes and moisture (Vulnerable to dampness and extreme temperatures).
• Regular PVC cables should not be used for Conduit Instillation.
• Direct Burial Installation placed underground without conduit and are made with Weatherproof coatings to withstand harsh conditions.
• Gel-filled insulation protect against temperature changes and dampness with Armored sheathing to prevent damage from rodents and soil movement.

Optical Cabling

• Fiber optic cables transmit data using light pulses opposed to electrical signals.
• Enhanced bandwidth, extended distances, and minimal interference compared to copper cable.
• Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) from electronic devices and power lines. Optical cabling can transmit signals over kilometers without degradation.
• Optical cabling has the following components:
  • Core (ultra-fine glass for transmitting light)
  • Cladding (guides light within the core)
  • Buffer (protective coating)
  • Outer jacket (additional protection)
• Single-mode fiber (SMF) has a core size of 8-10 microns small with a high-power laser diode.
• Wavelengths used: 1310 nm or 1550 nm infrared light for long-distance communication and has higher speeds.
• Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) has a larger (50 or 62,5 microns) Light Source of LED or VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser).
• MMF has Wavelengths Used of 850 nm or 1300 nm infrared light.
• MMF has advantages: Lower cost than SMF suitable for short distances (LANs and data centers.

Optical Cabling

• Connector Types: Straight Tip (ST) uses push-and-twist (bayonet) for Older MMF networks but it is less common today.
• Subscriber Connector (SC) uses Push/pull for Single-mode and Multi-mode and Available in simplex and duplex versions.
• Lucent Connector (LC) is push/pull with latch for High-density ports.It smaller than SC, commonly used in modern networks.
• Coaxial (coax) cable is a copper-based cable that carries electrical signals. Unlike twisted-pair cables, coax uses two conductors that share the same axis.
• Offers better shielding against electromagnetic interference (EMI) . C-ommonly used in CCTV systems, cable TV, and broadband internet.
• Four main layers of Coaxial cable has:
  • Core Conductor carries the electrical signal (usually copper)
  • Dielectric Insulator provides separation between conductors
  • Shielding (Wire Mesh/Braid) Protects against EMI and acts as a ground
  • Outer Jacket protects the internal layers.
• In CCTV security systems for: Reliable video transmission.
• Cable Television (CATV) - used for TV signal distribution.
• Broadband Internet - used in cable modems for home internet.
• F-Type Connector is commonly used with coaxial cables. Its screw-on design ensures a secure connection for CATV, satellite TV, and modems.

Access Points

• Access Points (APs) provides wireless devices to connect to a network using radio waves to transmit and receive signals, using a IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standard.
• IEEE 802.11 standardizes for wireless LAN (WLAN) networks using radio frequency (RF) transmission to enable wireless communication for different frequency bands, 2.4 GHz (has longer range but lower speed) and 5 GHz (shorter range but higher speed).
• Infrastructure Mode WLAN in standard mode for Wi-Fi networks using wireless clients to connect through an access point (AP). APs manage wireless communication and interconnect clients.
• The AP allows multiple wireless devices to connect used by clients. Devices that connect to an AP are called stations (STA):.
• AP ensures seamless communication Basic Service Set (BSS).
• A Basic Service Set (BSS) is a single AP and its connected clients which provides controlled access and improved security.
• Each Basic Service Set (BSS) is uniquely identified by a BSSID.
• The BSSID is the MAC address of the AP's radio used to distinguish between different APs in a network.
• An AP can connect wireless clients to a wired network called the Distribution System (DS).
• AP connects to the wired network via an Ethernet switch.
• Many enterprise networks use Power over Ethernet (PoE) to power APs.

Wireless Spectrum Standards

• 802.11a and the 5 GHz Frequency Band: a wireless spectrum used for Wi-Fi and other wireless communication technologies for Better propagation. The standard has fewer channels and greater and interference risk, Lower data rates.
• 802.11a and the 5 GHz Frequency Band is another spectrum used for Wi-Fi using another networks Shorter range but higher speeds and Less congestion.
• IEEE 802.11a (54 Mbps) a Wi-Fi standard that operates only in the 5 GHz frequency band.
• Wi-Fi 5 is 5 GHz only and 80 and 160 MHz channel bonding.
• Wi-Fi 6 is 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz (plus new 6 GHz band), and Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA).
• Wireless LAN Installation Considerations for for Network name.

Bluetooth

• Bluetooth for Wireless communication technology connects devices short distances connecting Connectivity. Also for wireless devices as Standard up speed.

Radio Frequency ID (RFI)

• Wireless technology can uses a wireless of for RFID to the tags that helps wireless the security system over quick of that system.