Alexander II

Questions and Answers

What percentage of the Russian Empire's total population were serfs just before the abolition of serfdom in 1861?

50%

35% (correct)

10%

25%

What was a primary obligation of serfs towards their noble estate owners?

Serving or paying obligations in labour or cash (correct)

Managing the estate's accounts

Providing military service to the state

Paying taxes directly to the Tsar

How did serfdom economically benefit noble estate owners?

It provided a stable retirement fund for nobles.

It increased the available market for peasant goods.

It enabled nobles to extract more income from serfs' obligations. (correct)

It allowed nobles to acquire more land.

Why were tsars hesitant to implement reforms abolishing serfdom?

Nobles were influential in the military and government. Signup and view all the answers

How were serfs practically bound to noble estate owners?

By being banned from leaving without permission. Signup and view all the answers

What societal structure characterized the Russian Empire throughout the period of serfdom?

A rural society with a majority of peasants. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant administrative power held by noble estate owners over their serfs?

The authority to buy and sell serfs. Signup and view all the answers

What effect did serfdom have on the potential income of free peasants in the Russian Empire?

It limited the income potential of free peasants. Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental problem did the Russian armed forces face in modernizing during the 1850s?

An outdated recruitment system based on serfdom Signup and view all the answers

Which major conflict marked a significant failure for Russian military strategy in the mid-19th century?

The Crimean War Signup and view all the answers

What was a long-term cause of the Crimean War related to the Ottoman Empire?

Decaying influence of the Ottoman Empire Signup and view all the answers

What significant agreement did Russia reach with the sultan in 1827, related to the Greek autonomy?

Agreement for Greek self-governance Signup and view all the answers

What did the Treaty of Adrianople stipulate regarding Russian interests?

Extension of Russian territory in the Balkans and Caucasus Signup and view all the answers

What conflict between Russia and France contributed to the spark of the Crimean War?

Arguments over Christian rights in the Holy Lands Signup and view all the answers

What outcome did the Straits Convention (1841) have on Russian naval power?

Imposed a ban on Russian warships entering key straits Signup and view all the answers

Who was the future Minister of War that highlighted the link between military reform and serfdom?

Dmitrii Milyutin Signup and view all the answers

What did Nicholas I believe about Russia's position in relation to European powers?

Russia was not in a position to challenge other powers militarily Signup and view all the answers

What significant privilege had Russia gained for Orthodox Christians in the Holy Lands before the late 1850s?

Special protection rights from the Ottoman sultan Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary consequence of the Crimean War for Russia?

Weakened influence of autocratic governance Signup and view all the answers

What was the 'Eastern question' primarily concerned with?

Declining power of the Ottoman Empire and its territories Signup and view all the answers

What action did Russia take after the Treaty of Adrianople that indicated a shift in strategy?

Supported the Ottomans against Egyptian threats Signup and view all the answers

What were the primary issues that hindered significant reform of serfdom in the Russian part of the empire under Nicholas I?

Landownership and compulsion Signup and view all the answers

Which ruler is noted for considering the abolition of serfdom as early as the mid-eighteenth century?

Catherine the Great Signup and view all the answers

What was a key characteristic of peasant revolts during the era of serfdom in Russia?

They mainly took place in areas where serfdom was weakest. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary motivation behind the Russian rulers' consideration of reforms to serfdom?

Avoiding revolts and maintaining order Signup and view all the answers

How did the economic factors contribute to the reform of serfdom in Russia?

They influenced thoughts but were not the central reason for abolition. Signup and view all the answers

Why was the nobility resistant to the voluntary measures introduced for serfdom reform?

They feared losing their social status. Signup and view all the answers

What stance did Nicholas I take towards the idea of reforming serfdom?

He did not support compulsory reforms for Russian nobles. Signup and view all the answers

Humanitarian considerations regarding serfdom primarily stemmed from which sources?

The Enlightenment and Christian teachings Signup and view all the answers

Which military event is suggested to have influenced the eventual abolition of serfdom?

The Crimean War Signup and view all the answers

What was the expectation of the reform-minded bureaucrats regarding reforms of serfdom?

They needed to convince rulers of state interests. Signup and view all the answers

Which sentiment regarding serfdom was expressed by Catherine the Great?

Reducing cruelty is necessary to avoid uprisings. Signup and view all the answers

What was a perceived result of not initiating reform in serfdom according to Russian officials?

A potential violent uprising from serfs. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the consequences of the Statutes abolishing serfdom introduced in 1858-61?

Continued obligations of former serfs to landowners. Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of humanitarian churchmen and radical intellectuals in the abolition of serfdom?

They influenced thoughts but had no direct impact on reforms. Signup and view all the answers

What was one primary reason for the military reforms undertaken in Russia between 1862 and 1874?

To improve military performance following losses in the Crimean War Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II's ascension to the throne influence his governance?

He was more open to liberal reforms compared to his father Signup and view all the answers

What significant reform did Alexander II implement as part of his modernization efforts?

Emancipation of the serfs Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the key issues that the Russian military faced during the Crimean War?

Insufficient mobilization of troops Signup and view all the answers

What was one of Alexander II's aims in implementing social reforms?

To strengthen Russia's position as a Great Power Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the introduction of reforms during Alexander II's reign?

Isolation from both reformers and conservatives Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the deficiencies in Russia's military highlighted by the Crimean War?

Failure to utilize Russia's large army effectively Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a challenge faced by Alexander II when he came to power?

Political consensus favoring autocracy Signup and view all the answers

What was a danger associated with Alexander II's liberal reforms?

Potential increase in radical political opposition Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II address the criticism related to serfdom?

He relaxed press censorship to allow discussions Signup and view all the answers

What economic impact did serfdom have on Russia during Alexander II's reign?

It impeded modernization and economic progress Signup and view all the answers

What was the relationship between local government reforms and the emancipation of the serfs?

Emancipation required changes in local governance structures Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the political climate during the early months of Alexander II's reign?

A consensus existed favoring reform and modernization Signup and view all the answers

What event prompted Nicholas I to send Prince A.S. Menshikov to Constantinople?

The French leader's desire to gain support from the Catholic Church Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant military setback for Russia during the Crimean War?

The Siege of Sevastopol leading to heavy Russian casualties Signup and view all the answers

What crucial decision was made by the Treaty of Paris in March 1856 regarding Russia's military capabilities?

Russia was prohibited from maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea Signup and view all the answers

How many Russian troops were estimated to have died during the Crimean War?

450,000 Signup and view all the answers

What did the poor performance of the Russian military during the Crimean War lead to among the populace?

Public discussions about the future of the Empire Signup and view all the answers

What was one of Nicholas I's concerns before engaging in the war?

Russia's economic and social infrastructure Signup and view all the answers

What led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris?

Austrian threats to join the war Signup and view all the answers

What major reform is directly linked to the outcomes of the Crimean War?

Emancipation of the Serfs Signup and view all the answers

What misconceptions did many Slavophiles have regarding Russia's greatness?

That it was maintaining its status as a Great Power Signup and view all the answers

Which battle during the Crimean War highlighted the issue of outdated weaponry in the Russian military?

Battle of Alma Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant effect of the Crimean War on Russia's influence in the region?

Reduced its status as a leading power Signup and view all the answers

What characterized the public sentiment about the Russian Empire after the war?

Growing disillusionment with imperial authority Signup and view all the answers

What role did disease play in the casualty rates during the Crimean War?

Disease caused more casualties than battle wounds Signup and view all the answers

What was the impact of the Siege of Sevastopol on the Russian military?

It showcased significant weaknesses in Russian defense Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the growing population have on the land ownership of former serfs?

It caused a decrease in land ownership by 5%-25%. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main reasons for the failure of emancipation?

Redemption payments were too high. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal behind the Emancipation Decree?

To free serfs and allow them to own property. Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of the mir on agricultural innovation?

The mir acted as a brake on innovation. Signup and view all the answers

What major issues arose from the terms of the Emancipation Decree?

Serfs were required to pay for land they believed was theirs. Signup and view all the answers

How were peasants expected to pay for the land after emancipation?

Via redemption payments over 49 years. Signup and view all the answers

By what percentage did agricultural productivity increase by the end of the century?

20% Signup and view all the answers

Which group was primarily responsible for overseeing land redistribution?

The village council of elders (the mir). Signup and view all the answers

How did the nobility respond to the loss of serfdom?

They were largely unprepared for the change. Signup and view all the answers

Which argument characterizes the nature of the emancipation according to some historians?

It was too cautious, too little, and too late. Signup and view all the answers

What was one significant consequence of the Emancipation Decree for the peasants?

They faced riots and dissatisfaction. Signup and view all the answers

What was Alexander II's main intention in appointing General Rostovstev?

To balance reform with conservative pressures. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the fundamental motivations behind the Emancipation Decree?

To strengthen the military and economy. Signup and view all the answers

How did the financial situation of the nobility change by 1905?

They were forced to sell one-third of their land. Signup and view all the answers

Why did many peasants believe they shouldn't have to pay for the land?

They believed they were entitled to it by tradition. Signup and view all the answers

What was a major obstacle to effective industrialization in Russia following emancipation?

Limited capital being reinvested in the agricultural sector. Signup and view all the answers

What was one criterion used for measuring land allocated to peasants?

Official surveys conducted by the state. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the financial obligations placed on peasants post-emancipation?

They were heavy and burdensome. Signup and view all the answers

What limited the effectiveness of the mir in implementing reforms?

Its existence was counterproductive to serf freedom. Signup and view all the answers

In what year was the Emancipation Decree finally published?

1861 Signup and view all the answers

In what way did the reforms following emancipation depend on each other?

Their effectiveness hinged on mutual success. Signup and view all the answers

Why was Alexander II reluctant to abandon autocracy?

He viewed his authority as divinely sanctioned. Signup and view all the answers

How did the landowners react to the Emancipation Decree?

They felt bitter due to loss of land and serfs. Signup and view all the answers

What was the stance of the majority of the nobility regarding changes proposed by Alexander II?

They were hopeful Alexander would abandon his plans. Signup and view all the answers

What does the overall outcome of emancipation indicate about Russia’s position in comparison to Western Europe?

Russia lagged behind Western European economies. Signup and view all the answers

What happened to Rostovstev after he died?

He was replaced by a conservative, Panin. Signup and view all the answers

What was one significant reason for the failure of serfdom by 1855?

Rising debts among the nobility Signup and view all the answers

How did the structure of serfdom contribute to its inefficiency?

Land was divided into strips creating unnecessary complexity Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the mir in the lives of serfs?

To make all local decisions related to agriculture Signup and view all the answers

Why was the serf system viewed as a major obstacle to progress in Russia?

It stifled innovation and hindered economic development Signup and view all the answers

What were the two main categories of peasants under the serfdom system?

State peasants and serfs Signup and view all the answers

What was a common misconception among serfs about their condition?

They blamed their problems on the tsar rather than local landlords Signup and view all the answers

What defining characteristic set state peasants apart from serfs?

They could own land and were subject to different restrictions Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary concern that deterred peasants from rebelling before 1855?

Their limited perspective and focus on survival Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the serfdom system posed a threat to the army's efficacy?

Overreliance on serfs for labor Signup and view all the answers

What determined the ability of serfs to marry or engage in trade?

The approval of the mir's Elder Signup and view all the answers

How did the payment methods of serfs affect their living conditions?

Variability in payments introduced economic uncertainty Signup and view all the answers

What contributed to the increasing number of peasant outbreaks in the years leading up to 1855?

Growing discontent and economic strain Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of land redistribution among serfs in the mir?

Inefficient use of land and generational conflict Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the moral aspect of serfdom have on the state’s decision-making?

It became a factor in approving the serf reforms Signup and view all the answers

What impact did Miliutin's reforms have on the composition of Junker students by 1871?

12 percent of Junker students came from non-noble backgrounds. Signup and view all the answers

Which action was taken to reduce traditional influence in military education?

Formation of Junker schools accessible to all. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant change brought about by the University Regulations of 1863?

Increased freedom of expression in universities. Signup and view all the answers

What was the intended purpose behind reducing the compulsory length of military service?

To encourage greater participation in military service. Signup and view all the answers

What led Miliutin to push through his military reforms despite opposition?

The success of the Prussian army against the French. Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II's regime alter the control over education after 1861?

The Ministry of Education assumed jurisdiction over new schools. Signup and view all the answers

What was one result of the relaxation of censorship under Alexander II?

Greater freedom for academic and governmental publications. Signup and view all the answers

Which group showed significant opposition to the reforms initiated by Miliutin?

Traditionalists and conservatives. Signup and view all the answers

What role did the zemstva play in educational reforms after 1861?

They expanded primary education in rural areas. Signup and view all the answers

What did the Press Laws of 1865 primarily seek to accomplish?

Encourage new periodical publications with fewer regulations. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key feature of the educational changes under Golvonin?

A fourfold increase in the number of schools from 1861 to 1881. Signup and view all the answers

What was an important aspect of the University Regulations of 1863 regarding academic freedom?

Professors had less control over the curriculum than before. Signup and view all the answers

What demographic trend was seen in junker schools by 1871?

More percentage of non-noble students were enrolled. Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable outcome of the judicial reform introduced in 1864?

Trials became public and introduced trial by jury. Signup and view all the answers

Which feature of the zemstvo system highlighted its effectiveness in local governance?

It improved efficiency by decentralizing authority. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main criticisms of the Russian judicial system prior to the 1864 reform?

Accused individuals rarely saw the judges. Signup and view all the answers

How did the reforms of the military address conscription issues?

The period of service was reduced from 25 years. Signup and view all the answers

What was one significant change made in the judicial system following the 1864 reform?

The establishment of appeal courts. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the zemstvo system demonstrated potential for broader representation?

Broader representation than even certain advanced Western nations. Signup and view all the answers

What was one consequence of the judicial reforms related to legal professionals?

The creation of an independent bar. Signup and view all the answers

What issue persisted in the judicial system despite reforms in 1864?

Authorities retained powers of administrative arrest. Signup and view all the answers

What did military reforms initiated by Miliutin focus on?

Decentralizing military administration and improving efficiency. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes jurors’ behavior in trials post-reform?

They sometimes chose verdicts contrary to the evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant result of the increased efficiency of the courts?

Trust in the judicial system among all social groups grew. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the previous military structure was particularly criticized?

Conscription duration was seen as excessively long. Signup and view all the answers

What unintended consequence arose from the judicial reforms?

An independent legal profession fostered liberal ideas. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the administrative powers of the courts post-reform is inaccurate?

Judges were easily removable by the Tsar. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary role of the Committee of Ministers in Alexander II's government?

To discuss draft legislation and provide legal advice to the tsar Signup and view all the answers

What major change occurred in local government under Alexander II's reforms?

Creation of the zemstva, local elected councils Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of local government reform did Alexander II firmly suppress?

Calls for an elected classless national assembly Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant weakness of the Committee of Ministers?

Ineffective communication and conflicting policies among members Signup and view all the answers

What was the distribution of seats in the district zemstva based on class?

45% nobility, 40% peasants, 15% townsmen and clergy Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the zemstva did the liberals want to control but failed to achieve?

Disposal of imperial taxes Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II view the role of local government?

As a necessary improvement but not a fundamental change to autocracy Signup and view all the answers

What was the position of the Senate in the Russian government structure during Alexander II's reign?

It served as the Supreme Court and final court of appeal Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was added to the central government under Alexander II?

Committee of Ministers Signup and view all the answers

What ultimately remained the source of authority within Alexander II's government?

The tsar, who held the ultimate power Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable feature of the zemstva in terms of its membership?

It reflected a balance of power among different social classes Signup and view all the answers

In what year was the decree establishing the zemstva published?

1864 Signup and view all the answers

What characterized the reforms in local government during Alexander II's rule?

A strong tension between the desire for reform and autocratic control Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of Alexander II's reforms on the relationship between the czar and the nobility?

It maintained the nobility as a key element in resisting radical change Signup and view all the answers

What significant improvement did Reutern implement in Russia's fiscal organization?

Created a unified Treasury Signup and view all the answers

How did the railway network expand from the time Alexander II came to the throne until 1866?

It expanded from less than 700 miles to 2,194 miles Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the key factors that motivated the lifting of restrictions on Jewish individuals in Russia?

Economic reasoning for full contribution to the Russian economy Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable reaction of the intelligentsia towards Alexander II's reforms?

They expressed significant opposition to the reforms Signup and view all the answers

In which year was the 'Policy on Jewish Artisans' issued, abolishing the 'pale' for Jewish artisans?

1865 Signup and view all the answers

What was the nature of the warning received by several papers shortly after censorship was reformed?

A warning not to exceed certain limits Signup and view all the answers

What type of system replaced the medieval system of farming out licenses by Reutern in 1863?

An excise duties system Signup and view all the answers

What was one outcome of the increasing financial institutions by 1878?

Increased accessibility to capital for investment Signup and view all the answers

Who was a close adviser to Alexander II and assisted with the Emancipation of the Serfs?

Yakov Rostovtsev Signup and view all the answers

What ideological belief did the Westernisers hold regarding social organisation in Russia?

Russia had much to learn from Western Europe Signup and view all the answers

What was the common ground between Slavophiles and Westernisers in Alexander II's cabinet?

Influence on Alexander II's decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the reforms introduced under Alexander II’s rule by 1866?

To stimulate economic growth and modernize society Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of censorship in 1866 was seen as remaining strict by critics?

Warnings issued to media for exceeding limits Signup and view all the answers

What was the typical length of active service for conscripts who were not university graduates?

Seven years Signup and view all the answers

Which group experienced the most favorable conscription terms under the new service reform?

University graduates Signup and view all the answers

What significant change in social structure did the service reforms introduce?

All classes were treated equally in terms of conscription. Signup and view all the answers

Who provided the essential support that allowed reformer Miliutin to implement conscription reforms?

The Tsar Signup and view all the answers

What was one consequence of reduced service length for those with higher education levels?

It highlighted the disparity between educated and uneducated classes. Signup and view all the answers

What was General Rostovtsev's role in the reform of serfdom?

He helped formulate the emancipation statutes. Signup and view all the answers

What characterized Viktor Nikitch Panin’s approach as chairman of the Editing Commission?

He was more focused on pleasing Tsar Alexander II than on his own convictions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions did Michael von Reutern take during his tenure as Minister of Finance?

He successfully expanded the railway system across Russia. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of Alexander Golovin's key contributions as Minister for Education?

He improved the structure of university education, increasing autonomy. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Dmitry Milyutin's role in the Russian military reforms?

He advocated for liberal reforms within the military, gaining support from Alexander II. Signup and view all the answers

How did Nikolay Milyutin contribute to the emancipation of serfs?

By drafting the proclamation for their emancipation. Signup and view all the answers

What significant shift occurred in the Russian government after the 1866 assassination attempt on Alexander II?

A renewed focus on conservative policies. Signup and view all the answers

How did Grand Duke Constantine contribute to the governance during Alexander II's reign?

He played a pivotal role in modernizing the Russian Navy. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the Emancipation of the Serfs under Alexander II’s government?

It was passed with minor changes reflecting Alexander II's desires. Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary reason for Michael von Reutern's eventual downfall as finance minister?

The adverse economic effects of the Russo-Turkish War. Signup and view all the answers

What was Count Panin’s true ideological stance despite being viewed as conservative?

He was more focused on pleasing the Tsar than on consistent policies. Signup and view all the answers

What were the major reforms in university education during Golovin's term focused on?

Enhancing the autonomy and freedoms of universities. Signup and view all the answers

Which belief characterized Alexander II’s approach to the implementation of reforms?

Reforms were essential for modernizing Russia and had his strong support. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary legacy of the emancipation of serfs that came into effect in 1861?

It paved the way for subsequent reforms in Russian society. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Chernyshevsky's work 'What is to be done?' in the context of Russian socialism?

It heavily influenced Lenin's writings. Signup and view all the answers

Which opinion did Sergey Aksakov, a Slavophile, hold regarding the west?

The west had forsaken spiritual and religious development. Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the Polish Revolt that occurred between 1863 and 1864?

Poland's official language became Russian. Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II respond to the Polish Revolt?

He employed military force to regain control. Signup and view all the answers

What was a common characteristic of the nobility during Alexander II's reign compared to previous tsars?

They were considerably weakened and in debt. Signup and view all the answers

What was one key reform implemented by Milyutin in Poland after the revolt?

Estates of exiled Polish nobility were redistributed to Russian officials. Signup and view all the answers

What did the emergence of Young Russia pamphlets signify in 1862?

A call for radical change in governance. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reaction of peasants to the Emancipation Decree of 1861?

They organized numerous riots and uprisings. Signup and view all the answers

Which organization was set up in 1864 to channel calls for reform?

The zemstva Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable outcome of the fires in St. Petersburg in June 1862?

They caused alarm among authorities regarding social unrest. Signup and view all the answers

How did the intelligentsia's lack of a practical outlet for their aspirations affect their actions?

They turned towards violent revolutions. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key feature of the intelligentsia's perspective regarding Western society?

They viewed it as corrupting relations between people. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Michael Bakunin's ideological stance?

He argued for anarchy and individual freedom. Signup and view all the answers

The year 1867 is often viewed as a turning point in Alexander II's reign for what reason?

It marked the beginning of his repressive measures. Signup and view all the answers

What cultural policy characterized Russification in Poland?

Imposition of Russian as the official language of administration. Signup and view all the answers

What was a prominent theme in Alexander Herzen's writings?

A focus on modernizing Russia through Westernization. Signup and view all the answers

How did peasant unrest change after the initial Emancipation Decree period?

Peasant unrest decreased significantly over time. Signup and view all the answers

What institutional change was made to empower Polish society after the rearrangement of Polish governance?

Introduction of rural district councils. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the Polish nobility's fate following the 1863 revolt highlights Alexander II's approach to governance?

They faced significant consequences, including exile. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant concern for Alexander II regarding the establishment of a central zemstvo?

It could lead to anarchy in Russia. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the role of the intelligentsia in 19th-century Russia?

They set the tone for literate society despite being few. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributed significantly to the rising Polish nationalism by 1863?

The reforms by Alexander II failing to meet expectations for autonomy. Signup and view all the answers

What marked the difference in Alexander II's governance approach before and after 1867?

A shift from reforming policies to repression. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes the peasants' understanding of their rights during the period of reforms?

They were focused on tangible issues affecting their lives. Signup and view all the answers

How did the nobles respond to the discussions on emancipation during Alexander II's reform period?

They used delaying tactics and showed little opposition. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the zemstva's development indicated a growing demand for reform?

They called for a central office with increasing insistence. Signup and view all the answers

What criticism did the intelligentsia hold towards Western society?

It emphasized materialism and weakened moral values. Signup and view all the answers

In which way were the actions of Alexander II influenced by the conditions of the nobility?

He implemented reforms that maintained their power. Signup and view all the answers

What were the motives behind Dmitry Karakozov's assassination attempt on Alexander II in 1866?

To promote revolutionary ideals. Signup and view all the answers

What significance did the assassination attempts have on Alexander II's governance?

It led to increased security and changes in his advisers. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome for Anton Berezovsky after his assassination attempt in 1867?

He served hard labor for 40 years. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Alexander II's relationship with his advisers after the assassination attempts?

He retained some liberal advisers alongside conservative ones. Signup and view all the answers

What change occurred in Alexander II's public life after the assassination attempts?

He began retreating from public life. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main reasons for Anton Berezovsky's attack on Alexander II?

To retaliate for the oppression of his homeland. Signup and view all the answers

What role did Osip Komissarov play during the first assassination attempt?

He saved the emperor from being shot. Signup and view all the answers

Following the assassination attempts, which area saw significant conservative influence in Alexander II's administration?

Advisers to the Tsar. Signup and view all the answers

How did Alexander II's assassination attempts influence revolutionary activity in Russia?

It led to a gradual growth in revolutionary activity. Signup and view all the answers

What significant change was made to the education system after the assassination attempt on the Tsar in 1866?

Introduction of a more conservative leadership in education Signup and view all the answers

What was the impact on Alexander II's policies following the second assassination attempt?

Increased repressions accompanied by some reforms. Signup and view all the answers

What opinion did Dmitry Karakozov express when asked about his assassination attempt on Alexander II?

He believed he was serving his people. Signup and view all the answers

Which primary control did Dmitry Tolstoy implement regarding university education?

Imposition of a classical curriculum emphasizing Greek and Latin Signup and view all the answers

What was one reform implemented during Alexander II's earlier reign, prior to the assassination attempts?

Abolition of serfdom. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main responsibilities of the newly elected town councils established by the Municipal Statute of 1870?

Oversight of public health and services Signup and view all the answers

How did the authorities alter the legal system after the Vera Zasulich trial in 1878?

Resorted to special courts and administrative arrest Signup and view all the answers

Which minister retained his position even after the assassination attempts in 1867?

Dmitry Milyutin. Signup and view all the answers

What impact did Tolstoy's educational reforms have on women in Russia?

Creation of more women’s colleges and courses Signup and view all the answers

What was a key reason behind the establishment of the new curriculum in gymnasia under Tolstoy?

To prevent the spread of radical ideas Signup and view all the answers

Which social group primarily benefited from the reforms in women's education during Alexander II's reign?

Noble women Signup and view all the answers

What significant military change was enacted in Russia in 1874?

Introduction of mandatory military service for all classes Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of education did Tolstoy influence significantly under Alexander II's administration?

Curricula dictated by Ministry authorities Signup and view all the answers

How did the reforms during Alexander II's reign create tension within society?

Through a struggle between liberal and conservative forces Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding local government reforms in the 1870s?

Elected councils were established in both urban and rural areas. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary aim of Dmitry Tolstoy's conservative educational policies?

To strengthen the ties between education and the Orthodox Church Signup and view all the answers

Why was Alexander II cautious about reforms during his reign?

Realization of the potential for revolutionary movements Signup and view all the answers

What method was introduced to ensure educational equality during Tolstoy's reforms?

Allowing access to gymnasia for district school graduates Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Serfdom in Russia: A Brief History

Abolition of Serfdom: On 19 February 1861, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, affecting approximately 22 million peasants and 100,000 noble estate owners.
Population Impact: At the time of abolition, serfs constituted about 35% of the Russian Empire's population.
Demographics of Society: In the rural society, 80-90% of the population were peasants, with roughly half being serfs tied to noble estates while nobles made up less than 1% of the population.
Legal Status of Serfs: Serfs were bound to their landlords, needed permission to leave estates, and were required to pay obligations in labor (barshchina) and/or in cash and kind (obrok) for land use.
Economic Structure: Serfdom enabled nobles to extract maximum wealth from peasant labor, leading them to vehemently oppose reform efforts.
Nobility's Influence: Most army officers and high-ranking officials were from the nobility, hindering reform initiatives under tsars like Nicholas I and Alexander I.
Resistance to Change: Nicholas I limited reforms to non-Russian borderlands and opposed significant land transfers from nobles to peasants, resulting in minimal voluntary reform uptake by nobles.

Arguments for Abolition of Serfdom

Economic Decline: By the 18th and 19th centuries, Russia experienced relative economic backwardness compared to Western Europe, yet economic factors were not the sole motivators for abolition.
Peasant Revolts: Frequent peasant revolts demonstrated discontent, influencing rulers to consider reforms to mitigate unrest rather than respond to revolts with violence.
Humanitarian Considerations: Many intellectuals argued against the morality of serfdom, citing its conflict with Christian values, though these arguments did not drive significant reform efforts.
Military Inefficiencies: The inadequacy of Russian military forces during conflicts highlighted the necessity for social reform; serfdom hindered effective military recruitment and modernization.

The Crimean War: An Overview

Conflict Participants: The Crimean War (1854-1856) involved Russia against the Ottoman Empire, France, and Britain, resulting in disastrous outcomes for Russia.
Eastern Question: Central to the war was the declining power of the Ottoman Empire and the competing interests of European powers regarding its territories.
Diplomatic Tensions: The 1827 intervention by Russia, Britain, and France to support Greek autonomy showcased rising tensions with the Ottomans, further leading to conflict.
Religious Disputes: Disputes over Christian rights in the Holy Lands escalated tensions, primarily between Russian Orthodox and French Catholic claims, leading to war declarations by 1854.

Course and Consequences of the War

Major Battles: Key events included the Russian attack on the Turkish fleet, the British and French naval presence in the Black Sea, and subsequent invasions of Crimea.
Siege of Sevastopol: The prolonged siege lasted from October 1854 to September 1855, resulting in significant Russian casualties and eventual surrender.
Military Casualties: An estimated 650,000-750,000 died in the war, with Russia suffering the highest losses at around 450,000, many from disease rather than combat.
Treaty of Paris: Signed in March 1856, it forced Russia to relinquish protective claims over Christians in the Ottoman Empire and banned its naval presence in the Black Sea, signifying a major blow to its status as a great power.

Impact of the War on Russia

Public Discourse: The war prompted national discussions on Russia's status as a great power and spurred critiques from Slavophiles about the effectiveness of autocratic rule.
Reforms Catalyst: The military failures and resultant treaty acted as a catalyst for future reforms in Russia, including the social changes associated with the Emancipation of Serfs under Alexander II.### Reforms Following the Crimean War
The Crimean War (1854-1856) exposed critical deficiencies in the Russian military and society, necessitating reforms for Russia to regain Great Power status.
Key reform areas included the Emancipation of the Serfs, local government restructuring, military improvements, and railway expansion.

Emancipation of the Serfs

Serfdom was criticized for economic stagnation and social instability; nobles falling into debt highlighted the system’s failure.
Alexander II became known as the Tsar Liberator after issuing the 1861 Emancipation Decree, freeing privately owned serfs.
The decree allowed peasants to own property, run businesses, and choose spouses, but required them to pay for land through redemption payments.

Context of Serfdom

Over 50% of the population were serfs in western provinces, with serfs bound to land and state peasants enjoying some freedoms.
Peasant unrest increased, leading to hundreds of revolts before the Emancipation as economic hardship and bad harvests proliferated.

Opposition to Reform

Initial hopes for change among nobles were met with resistance; many hoped reforms would be delayed or dropped.
A series of committees and commissions were formed to draft the Emancipation plans, balancing liberal and conservative pressures.

Terms of the Emancipation Decree

Decree comprised 17 articles detailing rights and responsibilities, requiring serfs to pay for land at inflated prices through a 49-year payment plan.
Included provisions for legal land allocation and governance through local councils (the mir), but resulted in unfair land distribution.

Consequences of the Emancipation

Peasants expressed dissatisfaction, perceiving payments for land as unjust. Discontent led to increased incidents of rioting post-decree.
The mir system, while intended to stabilize, suppressed agricultural innovation and maintained old agricultural practices, resulting in minimal productivity gains.

Effects on Nobility and State

Nobility, unprepared for the competitive market without serfs, faced financial challenges; by 1905, many had lost substantial land holdings.
Coupled with high debts, the emancipation process failed to strengthen the nobility as a stabilizing force, leading to their decline.

Alexander II's Reign and Aims

Ascended the throne in 1855; influenced by the Crimean War defeat and liberal advisors, he sought modernization while retaining autocratic power.
Aimed for societal and economic improvements to reinforce Russia's Great Power status without empowering broader civil society.

Changes in press censorship and public discussions on serfdom indicated a newfound openness to reform early in Alexander II's reign.
Tensions existed as reforms simultaneously fostered a growing radical political opposition that ultimately culminated in Alexander's assassination in 1881.### Emancipation of the Serfs
Emancipation aimed to strengthen the Russian state in military, economic, and industrial terms.
Peasant economy was expected to generate surplus capital for industrialization, which largely failed to materialize.
Emancipation negatively impacted the nobility, as serfdom was integral to their power.
Redemption payments imposed on peasants were excessively burdensome, limiting progress.
Lack of full civil rights for peasants and the persistence of the mir hindered economic improvement.
Alexander II's cautious approach to reform faced criticism, although he had limited options given the political context.
The overall impact highlighted that emancipation alone could not transform Russian society without supportive reforms.

Reasons for Reform after Emancipation

Russia was perceived as weak and backward; reforms were necessary for stability and modernization.
Alexander II initiated reforms across various sectors: government, military, economy, education, etc.

Central Government Reforms

Central power still rested with the Tsar, but assistance was required for effective governance.
Key institutions included:
- The Secret Police (Third Section)
- Imperial Council of State (advisory)
- Council of Ministers (draft legislation)
- Senate (Supreme Court)
The Committee of Ministers was established, maintaining a hierarchical structure with limited communication among ministers.

Local Government Reforms

Absence of elected local government hindered efficiency, prompting reforms.
Zemstva (local elected councils) established in 1864, responsible for public services but limited financial authority.
The distribution of seats in zemstva favored the nobility, reinforcing their influence while promoting local administration improvements.

Legal Reform

The 1864 judicial reform aimed to modernize a flawed system with multiple court types and rampant corruption.
Public trials, jury systems, and appeals introduced to enhance fairness.
Justices of the Peace and judges gained independence, significantly restoring trust in the legal system.
Establishment of an independent bar led to the emergence of liberal-minded lawyers, fostering discussions on reform.

Military Reforms

The Crimean War exposed the Russian army's inefficiencies; military reforms began under Minister Miliutin.
Key changes included reducing conscription from 25 years to 16, establishing regional commands, and ending harsh corporal punishments.
Creation of Junker schools allowed non-nobility access to military officer training, promoting merit-based positions.
Miliutin's reforms faced opposition but were bolstered by successes of contemporary European armies.

Educational Reforms

Until 1861, education was heavily controlled; post-emancipation reforms under Minister Golvonin focused on expanding access.
Primary and secondary schools quadrupled in number between 1861-1881, with the church's influence reduced.
University Regulations of 1863 allowed significantly more academic freedom and autonomy, fostering a new generation of educated individuals.

Overall Impact

While the reforms of Alexander II provoked resistance and had mixed outcomes, they collectively laid the groundwork for future transformations in Russian society, moving away from serfdom and autocracy.

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