Alexander II
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Questions and Answers

What percentage of the Russian Empire's total population were serfs just before the abolition of serfdom in 1861?

  • 50%
  • 35% (correct)
  • 10%
  • 25%

    • What was a primary obligation of serfs towards their noble estate owners?

  • Serving or paying obligations in labour or cash (correct)
  • Managing the estate's accounts
  • Providing military service to the state
  • Paying taxes directly to the Tsar

    • How did serfdom economically benefit noble estate owners?

  • It provided a stable retirement fund for nobles.
  • It increased the available market for peasant goods.
  • It enabled nobles to extract more income from serfs' obligations. (correct)
  • It allowed nobles to acquire more land.

    • Why were tsars hesitant to implement reforms abolishing serfdom?

    <p>Nobles were influential in the military and government.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How were serfs practically bound to noble estate owners?

    <p>By being banned from leaving without permission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What societal structure characterized the Russian Empire throughout the period of serfdom?

    <p>A rural society with a majority of peasants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant administrative power held by noble estate owners over their serfs?

    <p>The authority to buy and sell serfs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did serfdom have on the potential income of free peasants in the Russian Empire?

    <p>It limited the income potential of free peasants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fundamental problem did the Russian armed forces face in modernizing during the 1850s?

    <p>An outdated recruitment system based on serfdom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which major conflict marked a significant failure for Russian military strategy in the mid-19th century?

    <p>The Crimean War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a long-term cause of the Crimean War related to the Ottoman Empire?

    <p>Decaying influence of the Ottoman Empire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant agreement did Russia reach with the sultan in 1827, related to the Greek autonomy?

    <p>Agreement for Greek self-governance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Treaty of Adrianople stipulate regarding Russian interests?

    <p>Extension of Russian territory in the Balkans and Caucasus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What conflict between Russia and France contributed to the spark of the Crimean War?

    <p>Arguments over Christian rights in the Holy Lands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome did the Straits Convention (1841) have on Russian naval power?

    <p>Imposed a ban on Russian warships entering key straits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the future Minister of War that highlighted the link between military reform and serfdom?

    <p>Dmitrii Milyutin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Nicholas I believe about Russia's position in relation to European powers?

    <p>Russia was not in a position to challenge other powers militarily</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant privilege had Russia gained for Orthodox Christians in the Holy Lands before the late 1850s?

    <p>Special protection rights from the Ottoman sultan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary consequence of the Crimean War for Russia?

    <p>Weakened influence of autocratic governance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the 'Eastern question' primarily concerned with?

    <p>Declining power of the Ottoman Empire and its territories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What action did Russia take after the Treaty of Adrianople that indicated a shift in strategy?

    <p>Supported the Ottomans against Egyptian threats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the primary issues that hindered significant reform of serfdom in the Russian part of the empire under Nicholas I?

    <p>Landownership and compulsion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ruler is noted for considering the abolition of serfdom as early as the mid-eighteenth century?

    <p>Catherine the Great</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key characteristic of peasant revolts during the era of serfdom in Russia?

    <p>They mainly took place in areas where serfdom was weakest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary motivation behind the Russian rulers' consideration of reforms to serfdom?

    <p>Avoiding revolts and maintaining order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the economic factors contribute to the reform of serfdom in Russia?

    <p>They influenced thoughts but were not the central reason for abolition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was the nobility resistant to the voluntary measures introduced for serfdom reform?

    <p>They feared losing their social status.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stance did Nicholas I take towards the idea of reforming serfdom?

    <p>He did not support compulsory reforms for Russian nobles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Humanitarian considerations regarding serfdom primarily stemmed from which sources?

    <p>The Enlightenment and Christian teachings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which military event is suggested to have influenced the eventual abolition of serfdom?

    <p>The Crimean War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the expectation of the reform-minded bureaucrats regarding reforms of serfdom?

    <p>They needed to convince rulers of state interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sentiment regarding serfdom was expressed by Catherine the Great?

    <p>Reducing cruelty is necessary to avoid uprisings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a perceived result of not initiating reform in serfdom according to Russian officials?

    <p>A potential violent uprising from serfs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the consequences of the Statutes abolishing serfdom introduced in 1858-61?

    <p>Continued obligations of former serfs to landowners.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the role of humanitarian churchmen and radical intellectuals in the abolition of serfdom?

    <p>They influenced thoughts but had no direct impact on reforms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one primary reason for the military reforms undertaken in Russia between 1862 and 1874?

    <p>To improve military performance following losses in the Crimean War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II's ascension to the throne influence his governance?

    <p>He was more open to liberal reforms compared to his father</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant reform did Alexander II implement as part of his modernization efforts?

    <p>Emancipation of the serfs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the key issues that the Russian military faced during the Crimean War?

    <p>Insufficient mobilization of troops</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of Alexander II's aims in implementing social reforms?

    <p>To strengthen Russia's position as a Great Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of the introduction of reforms during Alexander II's reign?

    <p>Isolation from both reformers and conservatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the deficiencies in Russia's military highlighted by the Crimean War?

    <p>Failure to utilize Russia's large army effectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was NOT a challenge faced by Alexander II when he came to power?

    <p>Political consensus favoring autocracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a danger associated with Alexander II's liberal reforms?

    <p>Potential increase in radical political opposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II address the criticism related to serfdom?

    <p>He relaxed press censorship to allow discussions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What economic impact did serfdom have on Russia during Alexander II's reign?

    <p>It impeded modernization and economic progress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the relationship between local government reforms and the emancipation of the serfs?

    <p>Emancipation required changes in local governance structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the political climate during the early months of Alexander II's reign?

    <p>A consensus existed favoring reform and modernization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event prompted Nicholas I to send Prince A.S. Menshikov to Constantinople?

    <p>The French leader's desire to gain support from the Catholic Church</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant military setback for Russia during the Crimean War?

    <p>The Siege of Sevastopol leading to heavy Russian casualties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What crucial decision was made by the Treaty of Paris in March 1856 regarding Russia's military capabilities?

    <p>Russia was prohibited from maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many Russian troops were estimated to have died during the Crimean War?

    <p>450,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the poor performance of the Russian military during the Crimean War lead to among the populace?

    <p>Public discussions about the future of the Empire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of Nicholas I's concerns before engaging in the war?

    <p>Russia's economic and social infrastructure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris?

    <p>Austrian threats to join the war</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major reform is directly linked to the outcomes of the Crimean War?

    <p>Emancipation of the Serfs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What misconceptions did many Slavophiles have regarding Russia's greatness?

    <p>That it was maintaining its status as a Great Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which battle during the Crimean War highlighted the issue of outdated weaponry in the Russian military?

    <p>Battle of Alma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant effect of the Crimean War on Russia's influence in the region?

    <p>Reduced its status as a leading power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterized the public sentiment about the Russian Empire after the war?

    <p>Growing disillusionment with imperial authority</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did disease play in the casualty rates during the Crimean War?

    <p>Disease caused more casualties than battle wounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the impact of the Siege of Sevastopol on the Russian military?

    <p>It showcased significant weaknesses in Russian defense</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did the growing population have on the land ownership of former serfs?

    <p>It caused a decrease in land ownership by 5%-25%.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main reasons for the failure of emancipation?

    <p>Redemption payments were too high.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary goal behind the Emancipation Decree?

    <p>To free serfs and allow them to own property.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the effect of the mir on agricultural innovation?

    <p>The mir acted as a brake on innovation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major issues arose from the terms of the Emancipation Decree?

    <p>Serfs were required to pay for land they believed was theirs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How were peasants expected to pay for the land after emancipation?

    <p>Via redemption payments over 49 years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    By what percentage did agricultural productivity increase by the end of the century?

    <p>20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group was primarily responsible for overseeing land redistribution?

    <p>The village council of elders (the mir).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the nobility respond to the loss of serfdom?

    <p>They were largely unprepared for the change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which argument characterizes the nature of the emancipation according to some historians?

    <p>It was too cautious, too little, and too late.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one significant consequence of the Emancipation Decree for the peasants?

    <p>They faced riots and dissatisfaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Alexander II's main intention in appointing General Rostovstev?

    <p>To balance reform with conservative pressures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the fundamental motivations behind the Emancipation Decree?

    <p>To strengthen the military and economy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the financial situation of the nobility change by 1905?

    <p>They were forced to sell one-third of their land.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did many peasants believe they shouldn't have to pay for the land?

    <p>They believed they were entitled to it by tradition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a major obstacle to effective industrialization in Russia following emancipation?

    <p>Limited capital being reinvested in the agricultural sector.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one criterion used for measuring land allocated to peasants?

    <p>Official surveys conducted by the state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the financial obligations placed on peasants post-emancipation?

    <p>They were heavy and burdensome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limited the effectiveness of the mir in implementing reforms?

    <p>Its existence was counterproductive to serf freedom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what year was the Emancipation Decree finally published?

    <p>1861</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way did the reforms following emancipation depend on each other?

    <p>Their effectiveness hinged on mutual success.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was Alexander II reluctant to abandon autocracy?

    <p>He viewed his authority as divinely sanctioned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the landowners react to the Emancipation Decree?

    <p>They felt bitter due to loss of land and serfs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the stance of the majority of the nobility regarding changes proposed by Alexander II?

    <p>They were hopeful Alexander would abandon his plans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the overall outcome of emancipation indicate about Russia’s position in comparison to Western Europe?

    <p>Russia lagged behind Western European economies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happened to Rostovstev after he died?

    <p>He was replaced by a conservative, Panin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one significant reason for the failure of serfdom by 1855?

    <p>Rising debts among the nobility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the structure of serfdom contribute to its inefficiency?

    <p>Land was divided into strips creating unnecessary complexity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the role of the mir in the lives of serfs?

    <p>To make all local decisions related to agriculture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was the serf system viewed as a major obstacle to progress in Russia?

    <p>It stifled innovation and hindered economic development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the two main categories of peasants under the serfdom system?

    <p>State peasants and serfs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a common misconception among serfs about their condition?

    <p>They blamed their problems on the tsar rather than local landlords</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defining characteristic set state peasants apart from serfs?

    <p>They could own land and were subject to different restrictions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a primary concern that deterred peasants from rebelling before 1855?

    <p>Their limited perspective and focus on survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the serfdom system posed a threat to the army's efficacy?

    <p>Overreliance on serfs for labor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determined the ability of serfs to marry or engage in trade?

    <p>The approval of the mir's Elder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the payment methods of serfs affect their living conditions?

    <p>Variability in payments introduced economic uncertainty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributed to the increasing number of peasant outbreaks in the years leading up to 1855?

    <p>Growing discontent and economic strain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the result of land redistribution among serfs in the mir?

    <p>Inefficient use of land and generational conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did the moral aspect of serfdom have on the state’s decision-making?

    <p>It became a factor in approving the serf reforms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did Miliutin's reforms have on the composition of Junker students by 1871?

    <p>12 percent of Junker students came from non-noble backgrounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which action was taken to reduce traditional influence in military education?

    <p>Formation of Junker schools accessible to all.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant change brought about by the University Regulations of 1863?

    <p>Increased freedom of expression in universities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the intended purpose behind reducing the compulsory length of military service?

    <p>To encourage greater participation in military service.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What led Miliutin to push through his military reforms despite opposition?

    <p>The success of the Prussian army against the French.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II's regime alter the control over education after 1861?

    <p>The Ministry of Education assumed jurisdiction over new schools.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one result of the relaxation of censorship under Alexander II?

    <p>Greater freedom for academic and governmental publications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group showed significant opposition to the reforms initiated by Miliutin?

    <p>Traditionalists and conservatives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did the zemstva play in educational reforms after 1861?

    <p>They expanded primary education in rural areas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Press Laws of 1865 primarily seek to accomplish?

    <p>Encourage new periodical publications with fewer regulations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key feature of the educational changes under Golvonin?

    <p>A fourfold increase in the number of schools from 1861 to 1881.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was an important aspect of the University Regulations of 1863 regarding academic freedom?

    <p>Professors had less control over the curriculum than before.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What demographic trend was seen in junker schools by 1871?

    <p>More percentage of non-noble students were enrolled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable outcome of the judicial reform introduced in 1864?

    <p>Trials became public and introduced trial by jury.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature of the zemstvo system highlighted its effectiveness in local governance?

    <p>It improved efficiency by decentralizing authority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main criticisms of the Russian judicial system prior to the 1864 reform?

    <p>Accused individuals rarely saw the judges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the reforms of the military address conscription issues?

    <p>The period of service was reduced from 25 years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one significant change made in the judicial system following the 1864 reform?

    <p>The establishment of appeal courts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of the zemstvo system demonstrated potential for broader representation?

    <p>Broader representation than even certain advanced Western nations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one consequence of the judicial reforms related to legal professionals?

    <p>The creation of an independent bar.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What issue persisted in the judicial system despite reforms in 1864?

    <p>Authorities retained powers of administrative arrest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did military reforms initiated by Miliutin focus on?

    <p>Decentralizing military administration and improving efficiency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes jurors’ behavior in trials post-reform?

    <p>They sometimes chose verdicts contrary to the evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant result of the increased efficiency of the courts?

    <p>Trust in the judicial system among all social groups grew.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the previous military structure was particularly criticized?

    <p>Conscription duration was seen as excessively long.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What unintended consequence arose from the judicial reforms?

    <p>An independent legal profession fostered liberal ideas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the administrative powers of the courts post-reform is inaccurate?

    <p>Judges were easily removable by the Tsar.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary role of the Committee of Ministers in Alexander II's government?

    <p>To discuss draft legislation and provide legal advice to the tsar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major change occurred in local government under Alexander II's reforms?

    <p>Creation of the zemstva, local elected councils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of local government reform did Alexander II firmly suppress?

    <p>Calls for an elected classless national assembly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant weakness of the Committee of Ministers?

    <p>Ineffective communication and conflicting policies among members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the distribution of seats in the district zemstva based on class?

    <p>45% nobility, 40% peasants, 15% townsmen and clergy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the zemstva did the liberals want to control but failed to achieve?

    <p>Disposal of imperial taxes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II view the role of local government?

    <p>As a necessary improvement but not a fundamental change to autocracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the position of the Senate in the Russian government structure during Alexander II's reign?

    <p>It served as the Supreme Court and final court of appeal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was added to the central government under Alexander II?

    <p>Committee of Ministers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ultimately remained the source of authority within Alexander II's government?

    <p>The tsar, who held the ultimate power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable feature of the zemstva in terms of its membership?

    <p>It reflected a balance of power among different social classes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what year was the decree establishing the zemstva published?

    <p>1864</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterized the reforms in local government during Alexander II's rule?

    <p>A strong tension between the desire for reform and autocratic control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of Alexander II's reforms on the relationship between the czar and the nobility?

    <p>It maintained the nobility as a key element in resisting radical change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant improvement did Reutern implement in Russia's fiscal organization?

    <p>Created a unified Treasury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the railway network expand from the time Alexander II came to the throne until 1866?

    <p>It expanded from less than 700 miles to 2,194 miles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the key factors that motivated the lifting of restrictions on Jewish individuals in Russia?

    <p>Economic reasoning for full contribution to the Russian economy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable reaction of the intelligentsia towards Alexander II's reforms?

    <p>They expressed significant opposition to the reforms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which year was the 'Policy on Jewish Artisans' issued, abolishing the 'pale' for Jewish artisans?

    <p>1865</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the nature of the warning received by several papers shortly after censorship was reformed?

    <p>A warning not to exceed certain limits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of system replaced the medieval system of farming out licenses by Reutern in 1863?

    <p>An excise duties system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one outcome of the increasing financial institutions by 1878?

    <p>Increased accessibility to capital for investment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was a close adviser to Alexander II and assisted with the Emancipation of the Serfs?

    <p>Yakov Rostovtsev</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ideological belief did the Westernisers hold regarding social organisation in Russia?

    <p>Russia had much to learn from Western Europe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the common ground between Slavophiles and Westernisers in Alexander II's cabinet?

    <p>Influence on Alexander II's decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main purpose of the reforms introduced under Alexander II’s rule by 1866?

    <p>To stimulate economic growth and modernize society</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of censorship in 1866 was seen as remaining strict by critics?

    <p>Warnings issued to media for exceeding limits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the typical length of active service for conscripts who were not university graduates?

    <p>Seven years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group experienced the most favorable conscription terms under the new service reform?

    <p>University graduates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant change in social structure did the service reforms introduce?

    <p>All classes were treated equally in terms of conscription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who provided the essential support that allowed reformer Miliutin to implement conscription reforms?

    <p>The Tsar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one consequence of reduced service length for those with higher education levels?

    <p>It highlighted the disparity between educated and uneducated classes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was General Rostovtsev's role in the reform of serfdom?

    <p>He helped formulate the emancipation statutes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterized Viktor Nikitch Panin’s approach as chairman of the Editing Commission?

    <p>He was more focused on pleasing Tsar Alexander II than on his own convictions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following actions did Michael von Reutern take during his tenure as Minister of Finance?

    <p>He successfully expanded the railway system across Russia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of Alexander Golovin's key contributions as Minister for Education?

    <p>He improved the structure of university education, increasing autonomy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Dmitry Milyutin's role in the Russian military reforms?

    <p>He advocated for liberal reforms within the military, gaining support from Alexander II.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Nikolay Milyutin contribute to the emancipation of serfs?

    <p>By drafting the proclamation for their emancipation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant shift occurred in the Russian government after the 1866 assassination attempt on Alexander II?

    <p>A renewed focus on conservative policies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Grand Duke Constantine contribute to the governance during Alexander II's reign?

    <p>He played a pivotal role in modernizing the Russian Navy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of the Emancipation of the Serfs under Alexander II’s government?

    <p>It was passed with minor changes reflecting Alexander II's desires.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a primary reason for Michael von Reutern's eventual downfall as finance minister?

    <p>The adverse economic effects of the Russo-Turkish War.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Count Panin’s true ideological stance despite being viewed as conservative?

    <p>He was more focused on pleasing the Tsar than on consistent policies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the major reforms in university education during Golovin's term focused on?

    <p>Enhancing the autonomy and freedoms of universities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which belief characterized Alexander II’s approach to the implementation of reforms?

    <p>Reforms were essential for modernizing Russia and had his strong support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary legacy of the emancipation of serfs that came into effect in 1861?

    <p>It paved the way for subsequent reforms in Russian society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of Chernyshevsky's work 'What is to be done?' in the context of Russian socialism?

    <p>It heavily influenced Lenin's writings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which opinion did Sergey Aksakov, a Slavophile, hold regarding the west?

    <p>The west had forsaken spiritual and religious development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of the Polish Revolt that occurred between 1863 and 1864?

    <p>Poland's official language became Russian.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II respond to the Polish Revolt?

    <p>He employed military force to regain control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a common characteristic of the nobility during Alexander II's reign compared to previous tsars?

    <p>They were considerably weakened and in debt.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one key reform implemented by Milyutin in Poland after the revolt?

    <p>Estates of exiled Polish nobility were redistributed to Russian officials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the emergence of Young Russia pamphlets signify in 1862?

    <p>A call for radical change in governance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary reaction of peasants to the Emancipation Decree of 1861?

    <p>They organized numerous riots and uprisings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organization was set up in 1864 to channel calls for reform?

    <p>The zemstva</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable outcome of the fires in St. Petersburg in June 1862?

    <p>They caused alarm among authorities regarding social unrest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the intelligentsia's lack of a practical outlet for their aspirations affect their actions?

    <p>They turned towards violent revolutions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key feature of the intelligentsia's perspective regarding Western society?

    <p>They viewed it as corrupting relations between people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Michael Bakunin's ideological stance?

    <p>He argued for anarchy and individual freedom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The year 1867 is often viewed as a turning point in Alexander II's reign for what reason?

    <p>It marked the beginning of his repressive measures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cultural policy characterized Russification in Poland?

    <p>Imposition of Russian as the official language of administration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a prominent theme in Alexander Herzen's writings?

    <p>A focus on modernizing Russia through Westernization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did peasant unrest change after the initial Emancipation Decree period?

    <p>Peasant unrest decreased significantly over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What institutional change was made to empower Polish society after the rearrangement of Polish governance?

    <p>Introduction of rural district councils.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the Polish nobility's fate following the 1863 revolt highlights Alexander II's approach to governance?

    <p>They faced significant consequences, including exile.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant concern for Alexander II regarding the establishment of a central zemstvo?

    <p>It could lead to anarchy in Russia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the role of the intelligentsia in 19th-century Russia?

    <p>They set the tone for literate society despite being few.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributed significantly to the rising Polish nationalism by 1863?

    <p>The reforms by Alexander II failing to meet expectations for autonomy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What marked the difference in Alexander II's governance approach before and after 1867?

    <p>A shift from reforming policies to repression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best characterizes the peasants' understanding of their rights during the period of reforms?

    <p>They were focused on tangible issues affecting their lives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the nobles respond to the discussions on emancipation during Alexander II's reform period?

    <p>They used delaying tactics and showed little opposition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of the zemstva's development indicated a growing demand for reform?

    <p>They called for a central office with increasing insistence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criticism did the intelligentsia hold towards Western society?

    <p>It emphasized materialism and weakened moral values.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which way were the actions of Alexander II influenced by the conditions of the nobility?

    <p>He implemented reforms that maintained their power.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the motives behind Dmitry Karakozov's assassination attempt on Alexander II in 1866?

    <p>To promote revolutionary ideals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significance did the assassination attempts have on Alexander II's governance?

    <p>It led to increased security and changes in his advisers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome for Anton Berezovsky after his assassination attempt in 1867?

    <p>He served hard labor for 40 years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Alexander II's relationship with his advisers after the assassination attempts?

    <p>He retained some liberal advisers alongside conservative ones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What change occurred in Alexander II's public life after the assassination attempts?

    <p>He began retreating from public life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main reasons for Anton Berezovsky's attack on Alexander II?

    <p>To retaliate for the oppression of his homeland.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did Osip Komissarov play during the first assassination attempt?

    <p>He saved the emperor from being shot.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Following the assassination attempts, which area saw significant conservative influence in Alexander II's administration?

    <p>Advisers to the Tsar.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Alexander II's assassination attempts influence revolutionary activity in Russia?

    <p>It led to a gradual growth in revolutionary activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant change was made to the education system after the assassination attempt on the Tsar in 1866?

    <p>Introduction of a more conservative leadership in education</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the impact on Alexander II's policies following the second assassination attempt?

    <p>Increased repressions accompanied by some reforms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What opinion did Dmitry Karakozov express when asked about his assassination attempt on Alexander II?

    <p>He believed he was serving his people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which primary control did Dmitry Tolstoy implement regarding university education?

    <p>Imposition of a classical curriculum emphasizing Greek and Latin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one reform implemented during Alexander II's earlier reign, prior to the assassination attempts?

    <p>Abolition of serfdom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main responsibilities of the newly elected town councils established by the Municipal Statute of 1870?

    <p>Oversight of public health and services</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the authorities alter the legal system after the Vera Zasulich trial in 1878?

    <p>Resorted to special courts and administrative arrest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which minister retained his position even after the assassination attempts in 1867?

    <p>Dmitry Milyutin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did Tolstoy's educational reforms have on women in Russia?

    <p>Creation of more women’s colleges and courses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key reason behind the establishment of the new curriculum in gymnasia under Tolstoy?

    <p>To prevent the spread of radical ideas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which social group primarily benefited from the reforms in women's education during Alexander II's reign?

    <p>Noble women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant military change was enacted in Russia in 1874?

    <p>Introduction of mandatory military service for all classes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of education did Tolstoy influence significantly under Alexander II's administration?

    <p>Curricula dictated by Ministry authorities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the reforms during Alexander II's reign create tension within society?

    <p>Through a struggle between liberal and conservative forces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding local government reforms in the 1870s?

    <p>Elected councils were established in both urban and rural areas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary aim of Dmitry Tolstoy's conservative educational policies?

    <p>To strengthen the ties between education and the Orthodox Church</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was Alexander II cautious about reforms during his reign?

    <p>Realization of the potential for revolutionary movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method was introduced to ensure educational equality during Tolstoy's reforms?

    <p>Allowing access to gymnasia for district school graduates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Serfdom in Russia: A Brief History

    • Abolition of Serfdom: On 19 February 1861, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, affecting approximately 22 million peasants and 100,000 noble estate owners.
    • Population Impact: At the time of abolition, serfs constituted about 35% of the Russian Empire's population.
    • Demographics of Society: In the rural society, 80-90% of the population were peasants, with roughly half being serfs tied to noble estates while nobles made up less than 1% of the population.
    • Legal Status of Serfs: Serfs were bound to their landlords, needed permission to leave estates, and were required to pay obligations in labor (barshchina) and/or in cash and kind (obrok) for land use.
    • Economic Structure: Serfdom enabled nobles to extract maximum wealth from peasant labor, leading them to vehemently oppose reform efforts.
    • Nobility's Influence: Most army officers and high-ranking officials were from the nobility, hindering reform initiatives under tsars like Nicholas I and Alexander I.
    • Resistance to Change: Nicholas I limited reforms to non-Russian borderlands and opposed significant land transfers from nobles to peasants, resulting in minimal voluntary reform uptake by nobles.

    Arguments for Abolition of Serfdom

    • Economic Decline: By the 18th and 19th centuries, Russia experienced relative economic backwardness compared to Western Europe, yet economic factors were not the sole motivators for abolition.
    • Peasant Revolts: Frequent peasant revolts demonstrated discontent, influencing rulers to consider reforms to mitigate unrest rather than respond to revolts with violence.
    • Humanitarian Considerations: Many intellectuals argued against the morality of serfdom, citing its conflict with Christian values, though these arguments did not drive significant reform efforts.
    • Military Inefficiencies: The inadequacy of Russian military forces during conflicts highlighted the necessity for social reform; serfdom hindered effective military recruitment and modernization.

    The Crimean War: An Overview

    • Conflict Participants: The Crimean War (1854-1856) involved Russia against the Ottoman Empire, France, and Britain, resulting in disastrous outcomes for Russia.
    • Eastern Question: Central to the war was the declining power of the Ottoman Empire and the competing interests of European powers regarding its territories.
    • Diplomatic Tensions: The 1827 intervention by Russia, Britain, and France to support Greek autonomy showcased rising tensions with the Ottomans, further leading to conflict.
    • Religious Disputes: Disputes over Christian rights in the Holy Lands escalated tensions, primarily between Russian Orthodox and French Catholic claims, leading to war declarations by 1854.

    Course and Consequences of the War

    • Major Battles: Key events included the Russian attack on the Turkish fleet, the British and French naval presence in the Black Sea, and subsequent invasions of Crimea.
    • Siege of Sevastopol: The prolonged siege lasted from October 1854 to September 1855, resulting in significant Russian casualties and eventual surrender.
    • Military Casualties: An estimated 650,000-750,000 died in the war, with Russia suffering the highest losses at around 450,000, many from disease rather than combat.
    • Treaty of Paris: Signed in March 1856, it forced Russia to relinquish protective claims over Christians in the Ottoman Empire and banned its naval presence in the Black Sea, signifying a major blow to its status as a great power.

    Impact of the War on Russia

    • Public Discourse: The war prompted national discussions on Russia's status as a great power and spurred critiques from Slavophiles about the effectiveness of autocratic rule.
    • Reforms Catalyst: The military failures and resultant treaty acted as a catalyst for future reforms in Russia, including the social changes associated with the Emancipation of Serfs under Alexander II.### Reforms Following the Crimean War
    • The Crimean War (1854-1856) exposed critical deficiencies in the Russian military and society, necessitating reforms for Russia to regain Great Power status.
    • Key reform areas included the Emancipation of the Serfs, local government restructuring, military improvements, and railway expansion.

    Emancipation of the Serfs

    • Serfdom was criticized for economic stagnation and social instability; nobles falling into debt highlighted the system’s failure.
    • Alexander II became known as the Tsar Liberator after issuing the 1861 Emancipation Decree, freeing privately owned serfs.
    • The decree allowed peasants to own property, run businesses, and choose spouses, but required them to pay for land through redemption payments.

    Context of Serfdom

    • Over 50% of the population were serfs in western provinces, with serfs bound to land and state peasants enjoying some freedoms.
    • Peasant unrest increased, leading to hundreds of revolts before the Emancipation as economic hardship and bad harvests proliferated.

    Opposition to Reform

    • Initial hopes for change among nobles were met with resistance; many hoped reforms would be delayed or dropped.
    • A series of committees and commissions were formed to draft the Emancipation plans, balancing liberal and conservative pressures.

    Terms of the Emancipation Decree

    • Decree comprised 17 articles detailing rights and responsibilities, requiring serfs to pay for land at inflated prices through a 49-year payment plan.
    • Included provisions for legal land allocation and governance through local councils (the mir), but resulted in unfair land distribution.

    Consequences of the Emancipation

    • Peasants expressed dissatisfaction, perceiving payments for land as unjust. Discontent led to increased incidents of rioting post-decree.
    • The mir system, while intended to stabilize, suppressed agricultural innovation and maintained old agricultural practices, resulting in minimal productivity gains.

    Effects on Nobility and State

    • Nobility, unprepared for the competitive market without serfs, faced financial challenges; by 1905, many had lost substantial land holdings.
    • Coupled with high debts, the emancipation process failed to strengthen the nobility as a stabilizing force, leading to their decline.

    Alexander II's Reign and Aims

    • Ascended the throne in 1855; influenced by the Crimean War defeat and liberal advisors, he sought modernization while retaining autocratic power.
    • Aimed for societal and economic improvements to reinforce Russia's Great Power status without empowering broader civil society.

    Social and Political Climate

    • Changes in press censorship and public discussions on serfdom indicated a newfound openness to reform early in Alexander II's reign.
    • Tensions existed as reforms simultaneously fostered a growing radical political opposition that ultimately culminated in Alexander's assassination in 1881.### Emancipation of the Serfs
    • Emancipation aimed to strengthen the Russian state in military, economic, and industrial terms.
    • Peasant economy was expected to generate surplus capital for industrialization, which largely failed to materialize.
    • Emancipation negatively impacted the nobility, as serfdom was integral to their power.
    • Redemption payments imposed on peasants were excessively burdensome, limiting progress.
    • Lack of full civil rights for peasants and the persistence of the mir hindered economic improvement.
    • Alexander II's cautious approach to reform faced criticism, although he had limited options given the political context.
    • The overall impact highlighted that emancipation alone could not transform Russian society without supportive reforms.

    Reasons for Reform after Emancipation

    • Russia was perceived as weak and backward; reforms were necessary for stability and modernization.
    • Alexander II initiated reforms across various sectors: government, military, economy, education, etc.

    Central Government Reforms

    • Central power still rested with the Tsar, but assistance was required for effective governance.
    • Key institutions included:
      • The Secret Police (Third Section)
      • Imperial Council of State (advisory)
      • Council of Ministers (draft legislation)
      • Senate (Supreme Court)
    • The Committee of Ministers was established, maintaining a hierarchical structure with limited communication among ministers.

    Local Government Reforms

    • Absence of elected local government hindered efficiency, prompting reforms.
    • Zemstva (local elected councils) established in 1864, responsible for public services but limited financial authority.
    • The distribution of seats in zemstva favored the nobility, reinforcing their influence while promoting local administration improvements.
    • The 1864 judicial reform aimed to modernize a flawed system with multiple court types and rampant corruption.
    • Public trials, jury systems, and appeals introduced to enhance fairness.
    • Justices of the Peace and judges gained independence, significantly restoring trust in the legal system.
    • Establishment of an independent bar led to the emergence of liberal-minded lawyers, fostering discussions on reform.

    Military Reforms

    • The Crimean War exposed the Russian army's inefficiencies; military reforms began under Minister Miliutin.
    • Key changes included reducing conscription from 25 years to 16, establishing regional commands, and ending harsh corporal punishments.
    • Creation of Junker schools allowed non-nobility access to military officer training, promoting merit-based positions.
    • Miliutin's reforms faced opposition but were bolstered by successes of contemporary European armies.

    Educational Reforms

    • Until 1861, education was heavily controlled; post-emancipation reforms under Minister Golvonin focused on expanding access.
    • Primary and secondary schools quadrupled in number between 1861-1881, with the church's influence reduced.
    • University Regulations of 1863 allowed significantly more academic freedom and autonomy, fostering a new generation of educated individuals.

    Overall Impact

    • While the reforms of Alexander II provoked resistance and had mixed outcomes, they collectively laid the groundwork for future transformations in Russian society, moving away from serfdom and autocracy.

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