Living on Land - Chapter 12

The cylindrical structure that forms the bone in mammals, containing concentric layers of bone tissue around a central blood vessel.

The outer, dense layer of bone tissue.

The inner, spongy layer of bone tissue.

The specialized type of cartilage that covers the ends of bones in joints, reducing friction.

The fluid found in joints that lubricates the joint and nourishes cartilage.

The bony structure that surrounds the joint, containing synovial fluid.

The bony structure that supports the head in mammals.

Bony structures that connect the head to the pectoral girdle in fish.

A joint in the vertebral column that allows mammals to move their heads up and down.

The relationship between the size of a body part and the size of the body as a whole.

The tongue in tetrapods is large and muscular, and is used to manipulate food and move it to the throat. Some species, like salamanders, frogs, and lizards, can even project their tongues to catch prey.

The Adductor mandibulae muscle closes the jaw, while the Depressor mandibulae muscle opens the mouth by connecting to the skull. The Sphincter colli muscle surrounds the neck and helps in swallowing food.

Positive pressure breathing is used by amphibians, where air is forced into the lungs. Amniotes adopt negative pressure breathing, where air is sucked into the lungs by expanding the ribcage, which creates a negative pressure.

The lungs in amniotes are subdivided, enhancing the surface area for increased gas exchange. They also possess a long trachea, strengthened by cartilaginous rings, to facilitate efficient airflow.

Valves in limb veins prevent backflow of blood, ensuring efficient circulation of oxygenated blood against gravity, which is essential for terrestrial vertebrates.

Double circulation in tetrapods comprises two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs, and the systemic circuit, which delivers oxygenated blood to the body.

The heart is divided into two sides: the right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body, and the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.

The ventricle, the lower chamber of the heart, can have a fixed barrier (crocodiles, birds, mammals) or barriers that form during contraction (turtles, lepidosaurs). Crocodiles, birds, and mammals also have coronary arteries to deliver oxygenated blood to the ventricle.

The lymphatic system collects fluid leaked from capillaries and returns it to the circulatory system. Lymph nodes filter this fluid, trapping foreign materials such as cancer cells or bacteria.

Vision is sharper in air than in water due to less disturbance of light. Terrestrial vertebrates focus their eyes by changing the lens shape, while aquatic vertebrates move the lens position.

Terrestrial vertebrates have eyelids for protection, lacrimal glands to produce tears, and a nasolacrimal duct to drain tears into the nose.

The middle ear amplifies sound waves and transmits them to the inner ear. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the auditory tube, which regulates pressure.

The olfactory receptors are located in the nasal passages. Ethmoturbinates, thin bones in mammals, hold most of these receptors. The vomeronasal organ, in the roof of the mouth, detects pheromones.

Tetrapods conserve water by having skin with keratin and lipids, and kidneys that excrete concentrated liquids.

Tetrapods regulate body temperature through thermoregulation: maintaining body heat higher than the environment. Endotherms generate heat internally, while ectotherms rely on the environment for heat.

Tetrapods have large, muscular tongues that they use to manipulate food in their mouths and move it to the throat. Some salamanders, frogs, and lizards can project their tongues to catch prey.

The Adductor mandibulae muscle closes the jaw, while the Depressor mandibulae muscle opens the mouth by connecting to the skull. The Sphincter colli muscle surrounds the neck and helps in swallowing food.

Amphibians use positive pressure breathing, where air is forced into the lungs. Amniotes use negative pressure breathing, where air is sucked into the lungs by expanding the ribcage.

The lungs in amniotes are subdivided, enhancing the surface area for increased gas exchange. They also possess a long trachea, strengthened by cartilaginous rings, to facilitate efficient airflow.

Valves in limb veins prevent backflow of blood, ensuring efficient circulation of oxygenated blood against gravity, which is essential for terrestrial vertebrates.

Double circulation in tetrapods comprises two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs, and the systemic circuit, which delivers oxygenated blood to the body.

The heart is divided into two sides: the right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body, and the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.

The ventricle, the lower chamber of the heart, can have a fixed barrier (crocodiles, birds, mammals) or barriers that form during contraction (turtles, lepidosaurs). Crocodiles, birds, and mammals also have coronary arteries to deliver oxygenated blood to the ventricle.

The lymphatic system collects fluid leaked from capillaries and returns it to the circulatory system. Lymph nodes filter this fluid, trapping foreign materials such as cancer cells or bacteria.

Vision is sharper in air than in water due to less disturbance of light. Terrestrial vertebrates focus their eyes by changing the lens shape, while aquatic vertebrates move the lens position.

Terrestrial vertebrates have eyelids for protection, lacrimal glands to produce tears, and a nasolacrimal duct to drain tears into the nose.

The middle ear amplifies sound waves and transmits them to the inner ear. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the auditory tube, which regulates pressure.

The olfactory receptors are located in the nasal passages. Ethmoturbinates, thin bones in mammals, hold most of these receptors. The vomeronasal organ, in the roof of the mouth, detects pheromones.

Tetrapods conserve water by having skin with keratin and lipids, and kidneys that excrete concentrated liquids.

Tetrapods regulate body temperature through thermoregulation: maintaining body heat higher than the environment. Endotherms generate heat internally, while ectotherms rely on the environment for heat.

Interlocking vertebral processes resisting twisting and bending.

Vertebrae connected to the pelvis.

Vertebrae in the tail.

Postural support and lung ventilation.

Muscle that expels air from lungs in amphibians.

Muscle mainly used for posture in tetrapods.

Muscles in the ribcage used for respiration.

Muscles for postural stability between vertebrae.

Bones lost with limb evolution.

Area of limb bone supports body weight on land.

Glands that produce saliva to aid in food processing and digestion.

Method of breathing where air is forced into the lungs.

Method of breathing where air is drawn into the lungs by expanding the ribcage.

Circuit that carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

Circuit that carries oxygenated blood to the body.

Collects fluid leaked from capillaries and returns it to the circulatory system.

Filter lymph and trap foreign materials.

Focuses eyes by changing the shape of the lens.

Focuses eyes by changing the position of the lens.

Eardrum, receives and amplifies sound waves.

Connects the middle ear to the pharynx, regulating pressure.

Thin bones in mammals where olfactory receptors are located.

Organ in the anterior roof of the mouth in tetrapods; detects pheromones.

The outermost layer of the skin that protects and retains water.

Gain heat from the environment.