Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which type of bone is primarily found in the external, dense part of bones?
Which type of bone is primarily found in the external, dense part of bones?
What is the main function of the zygapophyses in the vertebrae?
What is the main function of the zygapophyses in the vertebrae?
Which layer of hypaxial muscles, present in tetrapods, helps with expelling air from the lungs?
Which layer of hypaxial muscles, present in tetrapods, helps with expelling air from the lungs?
What is the role of the rectus abdominus muscle in tetrapods?
What is the role of the rectus abdominus muscle in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes the relationship between the pectoral girdle and the vertebral column in tetrapods?
Which of the following describes the relationship between the pectoral girdle and the vertebral column in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the study of the scaling relationship between the size of a body part and the overall body size?
What is the term for the study of the scaling relationship between the size of a body part and the overall body size?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to the bones that connect the head to the pectoral girdle in tetrapods, compared to fish?
What happens to the bones that connect the head to the pectoral girdle in tetrapods, compared to fish?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the evolution of tetrapod limbs from fish fins?
Which of the following best describes the evolution of tetrapod limbs from fish fins?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the cross-sectional area of limb bones change in larger animals compared to smaller ones?
How does the cross-sectional area of limb bones change in larger animals compared to smaller ones?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the costal muscles in the ribcage of tetrapods?
What is the function of the costal muscles in the ribcage of tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
Which muscle is primarily involved in opening the mouth in tetrapods?
Which muscle is primarily involved in opening the mouth in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary mechanism by which amphibians inflate their lungs?
What is the primary mechanism by which amphibians inflate their lungs?
Signup and view all the answers
In amniotes, what structures primarily strengthen the trachea?
In amniotes, what structures primarily strengthen the trachea?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of valves within limb veins regarding blood circulation?
What is the role of valves within limb veins regarding blood circulation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which animals have a heart with a fixed barrier within the ventricle?
Which animals have a heart with a fixed barrier within the ventricle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?
What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?
Signup and view all the answers
How do terrestrial vertebrates focus their eyes?
How do terrestrial vertebrates focus their eyes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure in the middle ear receives and amplifies sound waves?
Which structure in the middle ear receives and amplifies sound waves?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the stapes or ossicular chain in hearing?
What is the role of the stapes or ossicular chain in hearing?
Signup and view all the answers
In mammals, where are most olfactory receptors located?
In mammals, where are most olfactory receptors located?
Signup and view all the answers
What substance is produced by the outer layers of the skin in tetrapods to aid in water retention?
What substance is produced by the outer layers of the skin in tetrapods to aid in water retention?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a tetrapod structure involved in waste excretion?
Which of the following is a tetrapod structure involved in waste excretion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a primary method of heat gain for ectotherms?
Which of the following is a primary method of heat gain for ectotherms?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key advantage of endothermy?
What is a key advantage of endothermy?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes heat transfer through conduction?
Which statement best describes heat transfer through conduction?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of articular cartilage found in joints?
What is the function of articular cartilage found in joints?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the arrangement of bones in amniotes?
Which of the following best describes the arrangement of bones in amniotes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of axial muscles in tetrapods, other than locomotion as seen in fish?
What is the primary function of axial muscles in tetrapods, other than locomotion as seen in fish?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the significance of the transverse abdominus muscle in some tetrapods?
What is the significance of the transverse abdominus muscle in some tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the arrangement of the pectoral and pelvic girdles differ in generalized tetrapods?
How does the arrangement of the pectoral and pelvic girdles differ in generalized tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a characteristic of the appendicular skeleton in early tetrapods?
Which of the following is a characteristic of the appendicular skeleton in early tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the concept of allometry most directly related to?
What is the concept of allometry most directly related to?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the stress on bones change with animal size, according to allometry?
How does the stress on bones change with animal size, according to allometry?
Signup and view all the answers
What do the atlas and axis vertebrae specifically facilitate in mammals?
What do the atlas and axis vertebrae specifically facilitate in mammals?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic of limb bone do large animals generally exhibit compared to smaller animals?
What characteristic of limb bone do large animals generally exhibit compared to smaller animals?
Signup and view all the answers
Which muscle is responsible for swallowing food in tetrapods?
Which muscle is responsible for swallowing food in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary mechanism used by amniotes to draw air into their lungs?
What is the primary mechanism used by amniotes to draw air into their lungs?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of coronary arteries in the circulatory system of certain tetrapods?
What is the role of coronary arteries in the circulatory system of certain tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the key function of lymph nodes within the lymphatic system?
What is the key function of lymph nodes within the lymphatic system?
Signup and view all the answers
How do aquatic vertebrates primarily focus their eyes?
How do aquatic vertebrates primarily focus their eyes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the auditory or Eustachian tube in tetrapods?
What is the function of the auditory or Eustachian tube in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of vomeronasal organs in tetrapods?
What is the primary function of vomeronasal organs in tetrapods?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the stratum corneum in the skin of vertebrates?
What is the role of the stratum corneum in the skin of vertebrates?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following structures is a new feature in tetrapods related to waste excretion?
Which of the following structures is a new feature in tetrapods related to waste excretion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following terms describes the metabolic generation of heat within an organism's body?
Which of the following terms describes the metabolic generation of heat within an organism's body?
Signup and view all the answers
How does heat transfer through the process of convection?
How does heat transfer through the process of convection?
Signup and view all the answers
In tetrapods, what is the primary function of the adductor mandibulae muscle?
In tetrapods, what is the primary function of the adductor mandibulae muscle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the nasolacrimal duct?
What is the primary function of the nasolacrimal duct?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure in the inner ear of tetrapods contains hair cells that are stimulated by fluid waves?
Which structure in the inner ear of tetrapods contains hair cells that are stimulated by fluid waves?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary mechanism of heat loss for both ectotherms and endotherms?
What is the primary mechanism of heat loss for both ectotherms and endotherms?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Living on Land - Chapter 12
- This chapter discusses modifications for living on land in various animal groups
- Modifications include: bones and support, allometry, locomotion, eating, breathing, pumping blood, sensory systems, conserving water, body temperature, and reproduction
Modifications for Living on Land
- Bones and Support: Amniotes have bones arranged in cylindrical Haversian systems with concentric layers around blood vessels.
- Allometry: The scaling relationship between the body part size and the overall body size. Large animals have proportionally thicker limb bones than smaller animals. This is related to the stress on bones.
- Locomotion: Axial muscles are used for locomotion in fish, while terrestrial vertebrates focus on changing their eye lens shape for vision adaptation.
- Eating: Tetrapods have large, muscular tongues to manipulate food in their mouths. Some species can project their tongues to catch prey. Muscles like Adductor mandibulae, Depressor mandibulae, and Sphinctor colli are involved in jaw movement, mouth opening, and swallowing respectively. Salivary glands aid in the pre-digestion of food.
- Breathing: Land animals evolved lungs, using negative pressure to inflate the lungs. Positive pressure is used in some amphibians. Lung structure in amniotes is specialized to increase surface area for gas exchange. The trachea is reinforced by cartilaginous rings for support and flexibility.
- Pumping Blood: Blood in land animals has double circulation: Pulmonary circuit brings deoxygenated blood to the lungs and systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood to the body. The heart structure differs between groups; reptiles, amphibians and mammals have differences in the partitioning of the heart as blood is pumped through the body. Valves in limbs prevent backflow. Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart.
- Sensory Systems: Vision, hearing, and olfaction are enhanced in land animals to suit their terrestrial needs. Eyelids, lacrimal glands, and a nasolacrimal duct assist with maintaining eye moisture and function. Specialized structures like the tympanum (eardrum) in the middle ear amplify sound waves
Body Support - The Skeleton
- Amniotes have bones arranged as cylindrical Haversian systems, with concentric layers around blood vessels.
- Compact bone is dense, external bone. Cancellous bone is spongy, internal bone. Bone in joints contains articular cartilage to reduce friction and is surrounded by a joint capsule that contains synovial fluid.
Body Support - Cranial Skeleton
- Bony fish have extensive dermal skull bones that are retained in tetrapods.
- Fish have bones that attach their heads to their pectoral girdles (supracleithral bones).
- Tetrapods lost those bones, allowing for independent head movement, enabling more complex neck and head movement for terrestrial locomotion.
Body Support - Vertebrae and Ribs
- Zygapophyses interlock vertebrae, resisting twisting and bending for stability in mammals and reducing stress during movement.
- Atlas and axis cervical vertebrae allow movement of the head in mammals and other vertebrates.
- Thoracic vertebrae have ribs attached for body support.
- Sacral vertebrae are attached to the pelvis. Caudal vertebrae are in the tail.
Body Support - Axial Muscles
- Tetrapods have multiple layers of hypaxial muscles, a third layer in some tetrapods, for breathing and locomotion. The transverse abdominus muscle is involved in expelling air from the lungs in amphibians.
- Rectus abdominus is a new tetrapod muscle, primarily for posture and trunk movement. Costal muscles in the ribcage are used for respiration and expansion of the ribcage.
- Transversospinalis muscles are found between vertebrae and help with postural stability.
Body Support - Appendicular Skeleton
- Limbs and limb girdles: Sharks have a simple pectoral girdle, but bony fish have a more complex one. Clavicle and cleithrum bones are connected to the skull roof in some fish.
- Scapulocoracoid joins the clavicle and cleithrum, which are connected to the skull roof.
- The pectoral girdle is not connected to the vertebral column, but the pelvic girdle is connected, allowing for independent limb movement.
Body Support - Size and Scaling
- Allometry is the scaling relationship between a body part and the whole body.
- Larger animals have proportionally thicker limb bones, because of a higher stress on bones due to larger body weight and size. Animal posture and movement may differ accordingly.
Eating
- Tetrapods have large, muscular tongues to manipulate food in their mouths.
- Some species can project their tongues to catch prey.
- Salivary glands are present for pre-digestion.
- Adductor mandibulae and Depressor mandibulae are jaw muscles.
- Sphinctor colli is a swallowing muscle.
Breathing
- Lungs evolved in fish that lived in stagnant water with low oxygen.
- Positive pressure breathing involves inflating the lungs by manipulating the buccal cavity.
- Negative pressure breathing uses changes in ribcage and abdominal cavity pressure, creating negative pressure to draw air into the lungs.
- Lung structure has increased surface for efficient gas exchange in amniotes, with trachea strengthened by cartilaginous rings for flexibility and strength.
Pumping Blood
- Blood tends to pool in low spots, so blood pumping needs to offset gravity.
- Valves in limbs prevent backflow; the lymphatic system collects leaked fluids from the capillaries and returns them to the circulatory system.
- There is double circulation, with a pulmonary circuit and a systemic circuit.
- Ventricular separation (complete or incomplete) is a key adaptation in the structure, function, and efficiency of blood circulation in various vertebrate groups.
- Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart.
Pumping Blood (Lymphatic System)
- The lymphatic system collects leaked plasma from capillaries. Lymph nodes filter lymph.
Sensory Systems - Vision
- Terrestrial vertebrates focus their eyes by changing the lens shape, while aquatic vertebrates change the lens position.
- Eyelids, lacrimal glands (which produce tears), and the nasolacrimal duct (that drains tears into the nose) aid in visual function and comfort.
Sensory Systems - Hearing
- Water movement stimulates hair cells in the lateral line system in some fish.
- The middle ear consists of the tympanum (eardrum) enabling the reception and amplification of sound waves.
- Stapes or ossicular chain transmits sounds to the inner ear's oval window, stimulating hair cells in the organ of Corti in the lagena or cochlear.
- The auditory tube transmits air between the middle ear and the pharynx.
Sensory Systems - Olfaction
- Olfactory receptacles are located in nasal passages.
- Ethmoturbinates are bones where olfactory receptors are located in mammals.
- Vomeronasal organs are olfactory organs located in the mouth.
Conserving Water
- One issue with living on land is the need to conserve water.
- Skin protects land animals; the outer layer, stratum corneum, is composed of keratin, which along with lipids, helps retain water.
- Tetrapods have kidneys for excreting wastes as either semisolids or concentrated liquids.
- New structures in tetrapods like bladders and ureters play a key role in water conservation.
Controlling Body Temperature
- Thermoregulation is essential for tetrapods.
- Endothermy: Tetrapods create internal heat. Ectothermy: Animals absorb external heat.
- Maintaining higher body temperature than surrounding air is often an important feature for some vertebrates/mammals
Heterothermy
- Heterothermy encompasses a range of body temperatures, including temporal heterothermy (variations over hours or weeks) and regional heterothermy (variations within different body tissues)
Reproduction
- Amniotes produce eggs with internal membranes that allow gas exchange while preventing water loss.
- Synapsids evolved into mammals.
- Sauropsids gave rise to reptiles, dinosaurs and birds. Includes internal fertilization.
Phylogeny of Tetrapods
- A cladogram displays the evolutionary relationships among tetrapods, with lineages like sauropsids and synapsids branching out from the ancestral amniote.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Explore how various animal groups have adapted to life on land in this chapter. From bone structure and locomotion to breathing and reproduction, discover the modifications that enable survival in terrestrial environments.
