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• Language terms are vocabulary and concepts for describing/analyzing language and literature. An understanding of these terms helps one to analyse texts effectively.

Literary Devices

• Literary devices are techniques writers use to enhance their writing and express meaning creatively.
• Metaphor: Compares unrelated things without using "like" or "as" (e.g., Time is a thief).
  • Draws a direct comparison to deepen understanding.
• Simile: Compares unrelated things using "like" or "as" (e.g., Her smile was as bright as the sun).
  • Uses "like" or "as" to highlight similarities.
• Personification: Gives human qualities to non-human things (e.g., The wind whispered through the trees).
  • Brings life to inanimate objects or concepts.
• Hyperbole: Exaggerates for emphasis (e.g., I'm so hungry I could eat a horse).
  • Emphasizes a point through extreme exaggeration.
• Alliteration: Repeats consonant sounds at the start of nearby words (e.g., She sells sea shells by the sea shore).
  • Creates rhythm and musicality in text.
• Onomatopoeia: Words imitate sounds (e.g., buzz, hiss, bang).
  • Makes descriptions more vivid through sound.
• Irony: Shows contrast between expectation and reality (e.g., A fire station burns down).
  • Highlights incongruity for humorous or critical effect.
• Symbolism: Uses objects/situations to represent deeper meanings (e.g., A dove symbolizes peace).
  • Conveys deeper meanings via symbols.
• Look for key words like “as” or “like” for similes or repeated sounds for alliteration to identify literary devices.
• Always consider the effect the device has on the reader.
• "Life is a rollercoaster" implies ups and downs, surprises, and excitement, comparing life to the wild ride of a rollercoaster without using "like" or "as."
• A common mistake is confusing a metaphor with a simile; simile uses "like" or "as," while a metaphor does not.

Language Techniques

• Language techniques are methods used in writing and speech to convey meaning or achieve a specific effect.
• Tone: Expresses writer/speaker's attitude (e.g., sarcastic, serious, joyful).
  • Conveys the writer's or speaker's attitude.
• Diction: Word choice conveys tone and affects interpretation (e.g., formal vs. informal diction).
  • Affects how the audience interprets the text.
• Syntax: Word arrangement affects rhythm and emphasis.
  • Alters rhythm and emphasizes key ideas.
• Imagery: Descriptive language creates mental images (e.g., The golden sunset bathed the landscape in a warm glow).
  • Paints a vivid mental picture.
• Foreshadowing: Hints at future events (e.g., A dark cloud looming in the distance foreshadows a storm).
  • Hints at future events to build suspense.
• Flashback: Past scene provides background information (e.g., A character remembers an event from their childhood).
  • Gives background or context from the past.
• Pay attention to transitional phrases (e.g., "years ago," "suddenly," "in the future") that signal flashbacks or foreshadowing.
• These can guide your analysis of chronology.
• "The dark clouds on the horizon only served as a warning for the tragic events to come" foreshadows trouble in a story.
• Overusing flashbacks can confuse readers about the main timeline of a narrative.

Rhetorical Devices

• Rhetorical devices are techniques used in persuasive writing/speech to influence the audience.
• Ethos: Establishes speaker credibility/authority (e.g., As a doctor, I can assure you this treatment works).
  • Primary focus is credibility/authority.
• Pathos: Appeals to audience emotions (e.g., Imagine the pain of losing a loved one in a car accident).
  • Primary focus is emotional appeal.
• Logos: Uses logic/facts/statistics (e.g., Studies show that regular exercise reduces the risk of heart disease).
  • Primary focus is logical argument.
• Repetition: Emphasizes via repeated words/phrases (e.g., We must fight, we must resist, we must prevail).
  • Emphasis through repeated words/phrases.
• Rhetorical Questions: Engage audience, provoke thought (e.g., Can we really afford to ignore this problem?).
  • Engage audience/provoke thought.
• Analyze persuasive speeches for a balance of ethos, pathos, and logos; skilled speakers combine these appeals.
• "We must act now to save our forests. As a researcher who has studied deforestation for 20 years (ethos), I can assure you the data is alarming (logos). Imagine future generations never seeing a single old-growth forest (pathos)."
• Relying too heavily on pathos at the expense of logos can make arguments seem emotionally manipulative rather than logically sound.

Grammatical Terms

• Grammatical terminology is essential for analyzing sentence structure.
• Clause: Word group with subject and verb.
  • Has a subject and a verb.
  • It can be independent (able to stand alone) or dependent (not able to stand alone).
• Phrase: Word group lacking subject/verb, cannot stand alone.
  • Lacks a subject or verb and cannot stand alone (e.g., prepositional phrase, verb phrase).
• Predicate: Sentence part stating what the subject does/is.
  • What the subject does/is in the sentence.
• Modifiers: Words providing extra information about other words.
  • Describes or provides more detail about a word (e.g., adjectives, adverbs).
• Find the main verb first when identifying the subject and predicate; the subject is who or what performs that verb.
• In the sentence "The energetic puppy chased the ball," The energetic puppy is the subject, and chased the ball is the predicate.
• Mixing up dependent clauses with independent clauses is a common mistake because a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence.

Parts of Words: Roots

• Roots are the core word part with primary meaning, often from Latin or Greek.
• "scrib" means write (scribble, describe, manuscript)
  • Write (describe, scribble, manuscript).
• "struct" means build (construct, structure, instruct)
  • Build (construct, structure, instruct).
• "tele" means far (telephone, teleport, telegraph)
  • Far (telephone, teleport, telegraph).
• Maintain a notebook or digital list of common Latin/Greek roots and refer to it when encountering unfamiliar words.
• The Greek root "tele" means "far," so words like television (vision from far) and telephone (sound from far) both carry this sense of distance.
• Assuming that all English words have clear-cut roots is a common mistake.

Prefixes

• Prefixes are letters added to the beginning of a word to change the meaning.
• "un-" meaning not (unhappy)
  • Not (unhappy, unfair).
• "re-" meaning again/back (rewrite)
  • Again/back (rewrite, return).
• "pre-" meaning before (preview)
  • Before (preview, predict).
• "dis-" meaning opposite/negation (disconnect)
  • Opposite/negation (disconnect, disapprove).
• Prefixes can indicate negation (dis- as in disconnect), direction (ex- as in export), and time (re- as in return).
• A hint is that learning common prefixes can quickly expand vocabulary and reading comprehension.
• The prefix "mis-" indicates something done incorrectly, such as misinterpret (interpret incorrectly) or misjudge (judge incorrectly).
• A common mistake is treating syllables at the start of a word as prefixes when they are not, such as "understand."

Suffixes

• Suffixes are letters added to the end of a word to change its form/function.
• "-ness" turns adjectives into nouns (happiness).
  • Turns adjectives into nouns (happiness, sadness).
• "-ly" turns adjectives into adverbs (quickly).
  • Turns adjectives into adverbs (quickly, slowly).
• "-ed" indicates past tense (walked).
  • Indicates past tense (walked, jumped).
• "-s" forms plurals/third-person verbs (dogs, runs).
  • Forms plurals or third-person verbs (dogs, runs).
• Suffixes can indicate part of speech, tense, number or comparison (e.g., "-er" and "-est").
• Check if a new adjective can form an adverb by adding "-ly" for more precise descriptions in writing.
• The adjective careful turns into the noun carefulness with the suffix -ness, and into the adverb carefully with the suffix -ly.
• A common mistake is spelling errors when adding suffixes, especially if the base word changes form (e.g., happy → happiness).

Affixes

• Affixes are prefixes and suffixes combined with roots to form complex words like "misunderstanding".
• Prefixes appear at the beginning of words (pre-, un-, dis-, re-, mis-).
  • Beginning of a root/base (pre-, un-, dis-, re-, mis-).
• Suffixes appear at the end of words (-ness, -ly, -ed, -s).
  • End of a root/base (-ness, -ly, -ed, -s).
• Affixes provide a way to alter or refine the meaning of a root, allowing interpretation or creation of more advanced vocabulary.
• Practice “building” words by mixing and matching common prefixes, roots, and suffixes to strengthen understanding of word formation.
• If you know the prefix "trans-" (across) and the root "port" (carry), transport means "to carry across."
• Misidentifying an affix is a common mistake because some letter groups seem like affixes but are actually part of the root (e.g., "con" in contest isn’t a negation prefix).

Word Families

• Word families are groups of words sharing a root and related meanings (instruct, instruction, instructor, instructional).
• instruct (instruction, instructor, instructional).
• act (action, active, activist, actual).
• form (inform, formation, reform, formula).
• Learning word families helps in recognizing patterns and expanding vocabulary.
• Use word families to guess meanings; knowing “instruct,” you can guess “instruction” has something to do with teaching or directing.
• The root "spect" (to look) generates inspect, spectator, prospect, and respect, all involving the concept of looking or viewing.
• Forgetting the base meaning when encountering a new form is a common mistake.

Compound Words

• Compound words are two or more words joined to create a new word.
• Closed compounds: toothpaste, basketball
• Hyphenated compounds: mother-in-law, well-known
• Open compounds: living room, dining table
• Closed Type: toothpaste, basketball
• Hyphenated Type: mother-in-law, well-known
• Open Type: living room, ice cream
• Check a reliable dictionary when unsure about whether a compound word is open, closed, or hyphenated.
• Notebook is a closed compound word, while post office is an open compound, and well-being is a hyphenated compound.
• Incorrectly splitting or joining compound words is a common mistake; writing anyone as any one changes the meaning.

Language Structures and Conventions

• Language structures/conventions are rules governing language use.
• Language structures and conventions refer to the rules and guidelines that govern the way language is used.
• Mastering these elements is essential for clear, coherent, and appropriate communication.

Formal vs. Informal Language

• Formal Language: complex sentences, advanced vocab, no contractions.
  • Advanced, precise is the vocabulary used.
  • Contractions are avoided.
  • Tone is serious and polite.
• Informal Language: relaxed, conversational, uses contractions.
  • Simple, colloquial is the vocabulary used.
  • Contractions are frequently used.
  • Tone is casual and friendly.
• Formal language uses complex sentence structures, advanced vocabulary, and avoids contractions.
• Informal language is relaxed and conversational, often including contractions, colloquialisms, and slang.
• Err on the side of formal language when in doubt, especially in professional or academic contexts.
• Formal Example: "I would like to request additional information regarding the project timeline."
• Informal Example: "Could you please let me know more about when everything's due?"
• Mixing formal and informal tones in the same text can confuse or alienate the reader.

Register

• Register is formality level depending on the situation.
• Frozen: rituals, legal documents
  • Typical Use: Rituals, legal documents (very set phrases).
• Formal: speeches, academic papers
  • Typical Use: Official speeches, academic papers.
• Consultative: professional settings, teacher-student
  • Typical Use: Professional settings, teacher-student dialogues.
• Casual: friends, informal chats
  • Typical Use: Friends, peers, informal chats.
• Intimate: close family, private language
  • Typical Use: Close family, partners, private language.
• Knowing your audience helps you choose the correct register, and a mismatch can lead to awkward or ineffective communication.
• Using formal register in a casual group chat might sound stiff, while using casual register in a formal email might appear unprofessional.
• Underestimating the importance of register is a common mistake; even with correct grammar, an inappropriate register can undermine the text’s effectiveness.

Style and Tone

• Style is language used for a specific effect (descriptive, narrative, persuasive, expository).
• Tone is writer's/speaker’s attitude (serious, humorous, sarcastic, respectful, critical).
• Style refers to how language is used to achieve a specific effect. Tone reflects the writer’s or speaker’s attitude.
• Read your text aloud to sense the tone, and adjust word choices or syntax if it doesn’t match the intended attitude or emotion.
• Read your text aloud to sense the tone.
• If it doesn’t match the intended attitude or emotion, adjust word choices or syntax.
• A story about a birthday party may use a cheerful tone with lively diction, whereas an obituary would have a solemn tone and more formal language.
• Confusing tone with mood is a common mistake since tone is the writer’s attitude, while mood is the reader’s emotional response.

Word Choice and Connotation

• The connotation of a word refers to the emotions/associations (positive, negative, or neutral).
• Denotation is the literal, dictionary definition of a word.
• Be mindful of connotations in persuasive or creative writing, and the right word can evoke the desired emotional response.
• Connotation Example: “Slender” has a positive connotation of graceful thinness, while “skinny” may imply an unhealthy or unattractive thinness, though both denote “thin.”
• Using words that are synonyms in denotation but differ in connotation, unintentionally shifting the tone is a common mistake.

Syntax and Sentence Variety

• Syntax is the arrangement of words to form sentences.
• Varying sentence structure can enhance rhythm and readability.
• Varying sentence structure—mixing short, simple sentences with longer, more complex ones—enhances rhythm and readability.
• Too many short sentences can sound choppy, while too many long sentences can overwhelm readers; mix them for natural flow.
• Short Example: She ran.
• Longer Example: She ran swiftly through the forest, her heart pounding with excitement as she chased the fading sunlight.
• Overusing complex sentences can obscure meaning and tire the reader.

Grammar and Mechanics

• Grammar is the rules governing sentence structure.
• Mechanics are conventions of punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.
• Correct: Ensures clarity (subject-verb agreement, correct tense usage).
• Correct: Ensures correct formatting (punctuation, paragraph structure).

Vocabulary Development

• Vocabulary development involves learning and expanding the number of words you can understand and use.
• A robust vocabulary is key to effective communication, comprehension, and academic success.

Learning Synonyms and Antonyms

• Synonyms have similar meanings.
• Antonyms have opposite meanings.
• Happy: joyful, glad (synonyms); sad, unhappy (antonyms).
• Fast: quick, rapid (synonyms); slow, sluggish (antonyms).
• Large: big, huge (synonyms); small, tiny (antonyms).
• A thesaurus helps find synonyms/antonyms, but check context and connotation to ensure the best fit.
• Intelligent synonyms: smart, clever; antonyms: foolish, unintelligent.
• Using a synonym that differs in connotation, unintentionally changing the tone is a common mistake.

Understanding Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

• Homonyms: Same spelling/pronunciation, different meanings.
  • Same spelling/pronunciation, different meaning (bark: sound/tree covering).
• Homophones: Same pronunciation, different spelling/meaning.
  • Same pronunciation, different spelling/meaning (to, two, too).
• Homographs: Same spelling, possibly different pronunciation, different meanings.
  • Same spelling, different pronunciation/meaning (lead: guide/lead: metal).
• Use context to determine the meaning of homonyms/homographs.
• “The bass swam swiftly” (fish) vs. “Turn down the bass” (low music tone).
• Mixing up homophones (e.g., their/there/they’re) undermines clarity.

Using Context Clues

• Context clues are hints within the text that help decipher unfamiliar words.
• Context clues can be definitions, examples, or explanations.
• Watch for phrases like “which means,” “that is,” or punctuation (commas, dashes) used to define a term.
• “The desert is arid, which means it is extremely dry.”
• Overlooking context clues can lead to misunderstanding a sentence’s overall meaning.

Learning Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes

• Knowing word roots, prefixes, and suffixes enables one to create new vocabulary with greater ease.
• Build on Parts of Words; revisit these elements frequently to decode or create new vocabulary with greater ease.
• Keep a running vocabulary list of common affixes, referencing it whenever you see new words.
• The root "port" (carry) yields transport, import, export, portable, etc.
• Applying an affix incorrectly, thus forming a non-existent or incorrect word (e.g., “predictment” from “predict”).

Expanding Word Families

• Words grouped by shared roots foster more systematic vocabulary building.
• Mind maps or charts help visualize how words relate.

Recognizing and Understanding Idiomatic Expressions

• Idioms have figurative meanings not apparent from the literal words.
• (“hit the sack” = go to sleep).
• Identify idiomatic phrases by checking if they can be interpreted literally.
• If not, they’re likely idioms.
• “Spill the beans” means to reveal a secret, not literally pour out beans.
• Translating idioms directly into another language often results in nonsense.

Engaging in Active Reading

• Active reading such as annotating, questioning, summarizing promotes better retention and comprehension of new vocabulary.
• Active reading—annotating, questioning, summarizing—promotes better retention and comprehension of new vocabulary.

Using Vocabulary in Context

• Reinforce the new words by incorporating them into speech or writing.
• Repetition in context solidifies memory.

Prepositions

• Prepositions link nouns/pronouns to other words, indicating relationships.
• Prepositions are words that link nouns or pronouns to other words in a sentence, indicating relationships like location, time, direction, cause, manner, or instrument.

Prepositions of Place

• "in" implies enclosed space.
  • Enclosed space or area.
• "on" implies surface contact.
  • Surface contact.
• "at" is used for a specific point/location.
  • Specific point/location.
• "under" is below something else.
  • Below something else.
• Visualize the space to pick the correct preposition since “in” implies enclosed, and “on” implies surface contact.
• “The keys are on the table” vs. “The keys are in my backpack.”
• Mixing “in” and “on” is a common mistake; In suggests being inside something; on suggests being atop a surface.

Prepositions of Time

• "at" is used for precise times.
• "on" is used for days/dates.
• in is used for months/years/seasons.
• Indicate when an event occurs: at (at 6 PM), in (in June), on (on Monday), before, after, during, until, etc.
• Use at for precise times, on for days/dates, and in for months/years/seasons.
• “He was born in 1995 on July 20 at midnight.”
• Saying “He was born on 1995” is incorrect since it should be “He was born in 1995.”

Prepositions of Direction

• "Into" implies entering an enclosed space.
• "to" indicates a destination.
• Indicate where someone or something is going: to, into, out of, towards, up, down, etc.
• “Into” often implies entering an enclosed space, while “to” might just indicate a destination.
• “She poured water into the glass” vs. “She walked to the store.”
• Saying “She poured water to the glass” is incorrect since it should be “She poured water into the glass.”

Prepositions of Cause, Manner, and Instrument

• Prepositions can indicate cause, manner or instrument.
• Cause: "because of," "due to."
  • (The event was canceled because of rain).
• Manner: "by," "with."
  • (She traveled by train, He cut with scissors).
• Instrument: "by," "with."

Complex Prepositions

• Complex prepositions include "According to", "in front of", "because of", and "in spite of."

The Apostrophe: When and How to Use It

• The apostrophe is primarily used to indicate possession or omitted letters in contractions.
• The Apostrophe: When and How to Use It
• The apostrophe is primarily used to indicate possession or omitted letters in contractions.

Showing Possession

• Singular nouns: Add ’s (the cat’s toy, James’s book).
• Plural nouns ending in s: Add only an apostrophe (the teachers’ lounge).
• Plural nouns not ending in s: Add ’s (the children’s toys).
• For compound nouns, place the apostrophe at the end (my sister-in-law’s car).
• For compound nouns, place the apostrophe at the end (my sister-in-law’s car).
• If something belongs to one noun and that noun doesn’t end in s, use ’s. If it’s plural and ends in s, just add an apostrophe.
• "The boss’s office" or "The boss’ office" (style-dependent) but remain consistent.
• Using an apostrophe for possessive pronouns (its, hers, ours, yours) is incorrect because they don’t take apostrophes.

Indicating Omitted Letters in Contractions

• Contractions use an apostrophe to show missing letters (don’t = do not, it’s = it is, you’re = you are, they’re = they are).
• Contractions use an apostrophe to show missing letters (don’t = do not, it’s = it is, you’re = you are, they’re = they are).
• Avoid mixing up it’s (it is/it has) with its (possession) and you’re (you are) with your (possession), they’re (they are) with their (possession).
• If you can expand it’s to “it is” or “it has,” then the apostrophe is correct; otherwise, use its.
• “It’s raining outside” (It is raining). “The dog wagged its tail” (The dog wagged the tail belonging to it).
• Writing “It’s tail was wagging” instead of “Its tail was wagging,” confusing the contraction with the possessive form.