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Questions and Answers
Phonological dyslexia is characterized by reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
Phonological dyslexia is characterized by reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
False
Acquired reading deficiencies include central dyslexia and peripheral dyslexia.
Acquired reading deficiencies include central dyslexia and peripheral dyslexia.
True
FMRI studies show that reading involves brain regions that are predominantly right-lateralized.
FMRI studies show that reading involves brain regions that are predominantly right-lateralized.
False
We process each letter of a word individually when recognizing it visually.
We process each letter of a word individually when recognizing it visually.
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Dysgraphia is specific to oral spelling.
Dysgraphia is specific to oral spelling.
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Visual word recognition takes less time for short words than long words.
Visual word recognition takes less time for short words than long words.
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Deep dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
Deep dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
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The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are pronounced.
The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are pronounced.
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Numeracy is limited to mathematics.
Numeracy is limited to mathematics.
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The Word Superiority Effect is the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a random letter string than in a word.
The Word Superiority Effect is the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a random letter string than in a word.
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Surface dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
Surface dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
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The Visual Word Form Area is located in the right mid fusiform gyrus.
The Visual Word Form Area is located in the right mid fusiform gyrus.
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Pure alexia is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to whole-word reading.
Pure alexia is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to whole-word reading.
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The Visual Word Form Area only responds to visual words and not to visual objects or Braille reading.
The Visual Word Form Area only responds to visual words and not to visual objects or Braille reading.
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Humans have a fundamental sense of numeracy, except for those with dyscalculia.
Humans have a fundamental sense of numeracy, except for those with dyscalculia.
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Non-symbolic number processing is limited to small numbers.
Non-symbolic number processing is limited to small numbers.
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We can subitize up to 7 items without counting them.
We can subitize up to 7 items without counting them.
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The distance effect is the phenomenon where it is faster to decide which number is larger when the numbers are small.
The distance effect is the phenomenon where it is faster to decide which number is larger when the numbers are small.
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The number system only processes countable quantities.
The number system only processes countable quantities.
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The Triple Code Model proposes two codes for number processing.
The Triple Code Model proposes two codes for number processing.
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The SNARC effect is a phenomenon that is culturally universal.
The SNARC effect is a phenomenon that is culturally universal.
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The ability to process symbolic numbers is unique to humans.
The ability to process symbolic numbers is unique to humans.
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Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at single-tasking.
Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at single-tasking.
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The Somatic Marker Hypothesis states that somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the amygdala and the representation of the body states stored in the insula.
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis states that somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the amygdala and the representation of the body states stored in the insula.
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The Iowa Gambling Test is a task that involves making decisions based on rationality alone.
The Iowa Gambling Test is a task that involves making decisions based on rationality alone.
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Lesions to the OFC lead to planning success and impulsive behavior.
Lesions to the OFC lead to planning success and impulsive behavior.
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The Multiple Demand Network is a subdivision of the medial PFC.
The Multiple Demand Network is a subdivision of the medial PFC.
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Task switching is not related to ACC/pre-SMA.
Task switching is not related to ACC/pre-SMA.
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The Six Element Test is a task that requires single-tasking.
The Six Element Test is a task that requires single-tasking.
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Decisions solely rely on rationality in individuals without brain damage.
Decisions solely rely on rationality in individuals without brain damage.
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The lateral PFC is considered to be specialized in task monitoring.
The lateral PFC is considered to be specialized in task monitoring.
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The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is part of the limbic system and has only one functionally different region.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is part of the limbic system and has only one functionally different region.
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The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is only involved in affective processing.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is only involved in affective processing.
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The dorsal ACC has strong connections with the dlPFC and is involved in affective processing.
The dorsal ACC has strong connections with the dlPFC and is involved in affective processing.
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Human reaction time experiments show that the trial immediately after an error is faster and less accurate than after a correct trial.
Human reaction time experiments show that the trial immediately after an error is faster and less accurate than after a correct trial.
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The lateralization of the brain is found in all primates.
The lateralization of the brain is found in all primates.
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Executive functions are tied to a particular domain such as memory or language.
Executive functions are tied to a particular domain such as memory or language.
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The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for emotional processing.
The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for emotional processing.
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The Tower of London is a test used to assess inhibition.
The Tower of London is a test used to assess inhibition.
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Inhibition is the ability to overcome habitual responses and is related to the medial prefrontal cortex.
Inhibition is the ability to overcome habitual responses and is related to the medial prefrontal cortex.
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Task switching requires the activation of the temporal lobe.
Task switching requires the activation of the temporal lobe.
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Perseveration is a result of PFC damage and is characterized by the ability to switch between tasks quickly.
Perseveration is a result of PFC damage and is characterized by the ability to switch between tasks quickly.
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The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a test used to assess inhibition.
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a test used to assess inhibition.
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The switch cost is a result of a facilitation of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one.
The switch cost is a result of a facilitation of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one.
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Study Notes
Literacy
- Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
- It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
- Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, not one by one.
- The visual lexicon is a storage of how words are written.
- The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or a nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or in isolation.
Visual Word Form Area
- The visual word form area is thought to be a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon.
- It is located in the left mid fusiform gyrus.
- It also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.
- It might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions (e.g., vision and speech).
Acquired Reading Deficiencies
- Central dyslexia: disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
- Surface dyslexia: reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
- Phonological dyslexia: reading real words better than nonwords.
- Deep dyslexia: real word reading is prone to semantic error.
- Peripheral dyslexia: disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
- Pure alexia: acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading, with reading time increasing proportionately to the length of the word.
fMRI Studies
- fMRI studies show that there are multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
- Inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area)
- Inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus – verbal working memory)
- Anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory)
- Reading uses similar brain regions across different languages, albeit to varying degrees.
Spelling and Writing
- Dysgraphia: difficulties in spelling, similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
- Deep dysgraphia: real word spelling is prone to semantic error.
- Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, patients tend to produce the same kinds of errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling – but not always.
- Some evidence shows separate written versus oral letter name output codes in spelling – indicating involvement of motor codes in writing.
Numeracy
Universal Numeracy
- Numeracy is not limited to maths, and humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable them to estimate quantity and perform basic calculations.
- Infants, unschooled individuals, cavemen, and non-human animals all possess a fundamental sense of numeracy, except for dyscalculia.
Numbers
- Non-symbolic number processing is universal.
- Ability to perform tasks is harder with increasing sets, even if the ratio is the same.
- We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) 4 items and less.
- Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.
- When we write in Arabic digits (i.e., 1-9, 0), we symbolize numbers.
- Distance effect: it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large (e.g., 2 or 9) relative to small (e.g., 8 or 9).
- Size effect: it is easier to judge which of two numbers is larger when the numbers are small (e.g., 3 or 5) compared with when they are large (e.g., 7 or 9), even when the distance between them is equal.
Neural Substrates
Number Meaning
- Not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system (e.g., length, area, brightness, etc.).
- Restle's MNL: Mental number line
- Walsh's ATOM: A theory of magnitude
Numbers & Space
- SNARC effect: Spatial-Numberical Association of Response Codes (Dehaene et al., 1993)
- Cultural SNARC: Ito & Hatta (2004), Shaki et al. (2009), Bulut et al. (2023)
- SNARC-like effects: Wühr & Seegelke (2008), Sellaro et al. (2014), Prpic et al. (2016), Fischer et al. (2003), Rugani et al. (2015), de Hevia et al. (2014)
Triple Code Model
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- Abstract (semantic) magnitude
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- Verbal store of numbers and operations
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- Visual representation for numerals (digits) & workbench for certain calculations
Executive Functions
- Executive functions are complex processes that optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes.
- They are not tied to a specific domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) and play a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role.
- Related to the prefrontal cortex.
Problem-Solving
- Problem-solving involves generating a solution given an end point (goal) and optionally a starting point (set of objects).
- Examples of problem-solving tests include the Tower of London, FAS test, and Cognitive Estimates Test.
- Prefrontal cortex lesions often lead to poor problem-solving.
Overcoming Habitual Responses
- Inhibition reduces the likelihood of a particular thought/action.
- Related to the medial prefrontal cortex, specifically the anterior cingulate cortex and pre-SMA.
- The Stroop task is an example of overcoming habitual responses, where participants must name the color of the ink and ignore reading the color name.
Overcoming Potent Responses
- Inhibition reduces the likelihood of a particular thought/action.
- Related to the medial prefrontal cortex, specifically the anterior cingulate cortex and pre-SMA.
- The Go/No-Go task is an example of overcoming potent responses, where participants respond to a frequent stimulus (go trials) but withhold a response to another stimulus (no-go trials).
Task Switching
- Discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one requires prefrontal cortex activation.
- PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift).
- The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is an example of task switching, where participants must adjust their responses to new rules.
- Switch cost refers to the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one.
Multi-Tasking
- Multi-tasking involves carrying out several tasks in succession and requires both task switching and maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with.
- Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at multi-tasking.
- The Six Element Test is an example of multi-tasking, where patients with prefrontal lesions often fail to switch tasks, spend too long planning, and so on.
Decision Making
- Decisions are not solely based on rationality, even without brain damage.
- Framing or social justice perception (e.g., ultimatum game) can affect decisions.
- The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) are involved in decision-making.
Somatic Marker Hypothesis
- Somatic markers link previous situations stored in the cortex to the "feeling" of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion (e.g., amygdala) and the representation of the body states (e.g., insula).
- Somatic markers are stored in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and have a direct role in controlling ongoing behavior.
Iowa Gambling Test
- The Iowa Gambling Test is an example of the Somatic Marker Hypothesis.
Delay Discounting
- Delay discounting involves choosing between current rewards and future rewards.
- Whether to go on holiday this year or invest the money for a better holiday in the future is an example of delay discounting.
- Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior.
Multiple Demand Network
- The lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and intraparietal sulcus are involved in cognitive control.
- The Multiple Demand Network is not subdivided into different regions.
Hemispheric Differences
- Left lateral prefrontal cortex is specialized for problem-solving, while right is for task monitoring.
- Alternative views suggest that the lateralization of the prefrontal cortex is not as clear-cut.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
- The anterior cingulate cortex is considered part of the limbic system.
- It is involved in error detection and has a cognitive mechanism that monitors for errors and recalibrates task performance accordingly.
- The dorsal ACC is involved in cognitive functions, while the rostral ACC is involved in affective functions.
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Description
Explore the complex process of literacy, including visual word recognition, the visual lexicon, and the word superiority effect. Learn how literacy enables communication beyond face-to-face contact.
