Lipids and Nucleic Acids

Lipids

• Lipids are composed of glycerol and fatty acid chains, but are not the prodymes
• Triglycerides feature a glyceride group and fatty acid chains
• Phospholipids include a glycerol group, fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group
• Steroids are characterized by four rings
• Waxes have glory chains
• Dehydration is a reaction that results in ester bond formation

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleotides are the fundamental monomers of nucleic acids like RNA and DNA
• RNA contains an extra oxygen atom
• DNA lacks an oxygen atom
• RNA features a single helix structure
• DNA features a double helix structure
• Uracil is present in RNA instead of thymine
• DNA pairs guanine with cytosine (G-C) and adenine with thymine (A-T)
• RNA pairs adenine with uracil (A-U)

Macromolecules

• Macromolecules have functional groups that are the reactive parts of organic molecules and typically make the molecule polar
• Key functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (C=O), carboxyl (-COOH), phosphate (-OPO32-), and amino (-NH2)
• Carbohydrates include Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
• Lipids include Fatty acids, Glycerol, Steroids, and Waxes
• Nucleic acids include Nucleotides
• Proteins include Amino acids

Carbohydrates

• Monomers are small, single units, while polymers are larger and have multiple units
• Alpha glucose has hydrogen ABOVE carbon 1, while beta glucose has hydrogen BELOW carbon 1
• Monosaccharides are single sugar units like glucose, fructose, and galactose
• Disaccharides link two monosaccharides, examples are Moltose, Sucrose, and lactose
• Polysaccharides link many monosaccharides forming starch, glycogen, and cellulose
• Glycosidic bonds are formed when two monomers form
• Condensation (dehydration) occurs when water is removed

Proteins

• Amino acids are the building blocks, there are 20 kinds
• Polymers are made up of amino acid monomers with amino, carboxyl, and R groups
• The R group determines the kind of acid.
• Peptide bonds form between amino acids via a condensation reaction
• Protein formation undergoes stages:
• Sequence of amino acids
• Coiling and folding into alpha helices or beta sheets
• Further coiling into specific shapes
• A peptide reaction causes a molecule to become a protein at stage 3-4

Polypeptides

• They make larger proteins and contain larger protein sizes
• Two amino acids make a dipeptide
• Three amino acids make a polypeptide
• Dehydration breaks amino acids with hydrolysis

Protein Structure

• Structure follows the levels:
• Primary: Sequence of amino acids forming a polypeptide
• Secondary: Polypeptides coil into alpha helices or beta sheets
• Tertiary: Further coiling into specific shapes
• Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides interacting

Carbohydrates (Detailed)

• Monosaccharides are simple, sweet sugars used for quick energy
• There are major types of of pentose sugars and hexose sugars
• Pentose sugars have the formula (CH2O)5 and are found in nucleic acids
• Hexose sugars have the formula (CH2O)6, including glucose, fructose, and galactose
• Carbons are attached to an oxygen, with only one carbon double-bonded to oxygen (carbonyl)
• Other carbons are bonded to an alcohol (hydroxyl) and are polar and soluble in water
• In dry state glucose is linear, but it forms rings when dissolved in water
• Glucose has alpha and beta forms

Organic Compounds

• Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Macromolecules are built from repeating units and are large molecules that comprise: polymers, monomers, and functional groups
• Functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (C=O), carboxyl (-COOH), phosphate (-PO4), and amino (-NH2)

Carbohydrates (Details)

• Carbons can make four bonds and usually form a tetrahedral shape
• Organic molecules include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio ((CH2O)n)
• Occur in five major groups of sugars and polysaccharides
• Two monosaccharides link via condensation to form maltose from glucose and glucose
• Many monosaccharides also link via condensation, forming easily broken glucose such as starch, glycogen, or cellulose
• Functions in energy generation and storage with starch in plants and glycogen in animals, and structural components such as cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in insect exoskeletons
• Pentose saccharides have the formula (CH2O)5
• Hexose saccharides have the formula (CH2O)6
• Alpha glucose contains hydrogen ABOVE
• Beta glucose contains hydrogen BELOW

Proteins (Characteristics and Content)

• Includes keratin, muscle, hormones, enzymes, channels, and oxygen transporters
• Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur/phosphorus
• Polymers are made of long chains of amino acids

Amino Acids

• The R group (radical) differs for each amino acid, giving each unique properties
• There're 20 amino acids humans require
• Nine are essential and must be obtained from diet

Protein Bonding

• The Carboxyl group bonds with the other amino acid’s amino group
• Dehydration (condensation) reaction because water released
• Peptide bond is formed

Lipids (Overview)

• Fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes
• Functions include storage, insulation in animals, and structural components in cell membranes
• More energy-rich than carbohydrates

Fats and Oils

• Group of lipids that are made of triglycerides formed by one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids

Triglyceride Synthesis

• Involves a condensation reaction
• This causes an ester linkage to form in between glycerol's hydroxyl group and a fatty acid's carboxyl group

Phospholipids

• Major structural component of cell membranes that includes 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group

Phospholipids (More Detail)

• Contain a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
• A phosphate group has hydrophilic properties (water-loving and polar)
• Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (water-hating and non-polar)

Steroids

• Involved in signaling
• Contain fused hydrocarbon rings and various functional groups

Waxes

• Contain long chain fatty acids

Nucleic Acids (Overview)

• Types are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) & RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Its' notes include Functions in genetic material in cells, Genes, and heredity
• The Monomers make it made up of repeating nucleotides and are found in The Sugar, Deoxyribose, ribose, and nitrogenous base

Pentose Sugar

• In DNA:
  • Has deoxyribose
  • Missing oxygen.
• In RNA:
  • Has ribose
  • Not missing oxygen

Nitrogenous Bases

• Purines: Has 2 rings. Includes:
  • Adenine (DNA, RNA)
  • Guanine (DNA, RNA)
• Pyrimidines: As 1 ring. Includes:
  • Cytosine (DNA, RNA)
  • Thymine (DNA)
  • Uracil (RNA)

DNA Building Blocks

• Contains phosphate and deoxyribose and is phosphate based.

Phosphate

• Phosphoric acid based is Phosphate
• A phosphate ion is in solution

Nitrogenous Bases

• DNA Pair: G-C , A-T
• RNA Pair: A-U molecule-
  • Some Molecules include adenine, thymine, cytosine, and uracil.

Cell membrane

• Consists of a semi permiable membrane is in charge of all processes and is how it's able to communicate within the cell

Cell Membrane Structure

• They make up a phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophilic and hydrophobic heads
• hydrophilic heads is water soluble
• hydrophobic tails is insoluble

phosphilipids

• has hydrophilic head being negative and outwards facing with the hydrophobic tail tucking into the inside

Membrane Fluidity

• it has saturated tails that bond
• the viscous is more fluid

cholesterol

• is a membrane stabilzer

proteins

• functions are is to transport, regulate signals, cytoskelton, and immune responses

Membrane composition of phospholipids

• they form barriers of cells
• contains cholesterol components
• Enzymes*
• Speed up reactions functioning as catalysts
• Facilitate reactions at lower temperatures

Enzyme Vocabulary

• Substrate: A reactant that binds to an enzyme
• Product: the end result of a reaction
• Active Site: Where the substrate fits
• Enzyme Substrate Complex: The complex formed when the substrate and enzyme interact

Enzymes - Properties

• They are very reaction specific and help particular substrates
• Enzymes are not affected by Hydrogen and ionitic bonds and are not consumed in reactions

Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity

• Temperature
• pH
• Substrate Concentration
• Enzyme Concentration

Enzyme Mechanisms & Regulation

• Enzymes work better when there is more Kinetic energy - it can be affected by cellular conditions

Enzyme models:

1. Lock & Key

• A non widely accepted theory and are a compliment theory

2. Induced Fit

• Inhibitors*
• Includes Competive and Non competive