Linux Text-Mode Login and Shell

• Linux computers previously booted in text mode showing a login prompt after system boot.
• A text-mode login prompt shows OS name and version(Fedora Linux 30), computer name, hardware device(tty1), and the prompt itself (login:).

Accessing Text-Mode from GUI

• A text-mode prompt can be accessed from a GUI login by pressing Ctrl+Alt+F2 or Ctrl+Alt+F3.
• Revert to the GUI login, press Ctrl+Alt+F1 or Ctrl+Alt+F7.

Logging In and Shell Prompt

• Type username at login: prompt, and the password when prompted.
• The computer will then display a login message followed by a shell prompt.
• Commands from the book omit the prompt but keep ($) for ordinary user commands.
• The prompt changes to (#) for commands requiring root user access (Linux administrative user).
• Linux accounts, including the root user account, are described in more detail in Chapter 13.

Using Text-Mode Commands

• Text-mode commands can be entered at the shell prompt even with varying installations.
• ls command lists files in the current directory
• Common commands are shortened to minimize typing.
• The $ ls command lists files like chapter1.doc and figure01.png.
• Additional commands like cp (copy) and rm (remove/delete) can manipulate files.
• Chapter 5 and 7 describe common file manipulation commands.
• Some programs take over the entire display for constant updates or flexible data interaction.
• The nano text editor uses keyboard arrows for cursor movement and allows text addition.

Utilizing a Terminal

• A terminal is a text-mode shell within a window, accessible from a graphical login.
• Linux GUIs can launch terminal programs.

Graphical User Interface (GUI) in Linux

• Most users prefer GUIs, so modern Linux systems default to a GUI login screen.
• GUI logins require username selection or typing, followed by the password.
• Some GUI login screens only request passwords after valid usernames.
• Linux offers multiple desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE Plasma, Cinnamon, and Xfce, unlike Windows and macOS

Customization and Assistive Technologies

• Desktop environment choice depends on the Linux distribution, installation options, and preferences.
• Graphical desktops often include assistive technology features, like screen readers or on-screen keyboards.

Common GUI Functions

• Program Launchers launch programs from menus or lists with a Mint leaf icon in bottom-left corner
• File Managers provide GUI file managers similar to Windows and macOS.
• Window Controls allow moving by dragging title bars and resizing via edges.
• Multiple Desktops enable multiple virtual desktops to reduce screen clutter.
• Typically, there is an icon in menus to switch between virtual desktops.
• Logout Options enable users to shut down or switch users.

Linux Flavors and Flexibility

• A default environment, that can be changed.
• Linux is unique in that it gives users a choice of desktop environments, unlike Windows or macOS.

Linux OS Comparison

• Linux is comparable to non-Linux OSs like Unix, Apple macOS, and Microsoft Windows.
• Unix is the family of OSs; which can be compared to Linux versions.

Relations Between Linux and Unix

• Linux modeled after Unix.
• Unix was first made AT&T’s Bell Labs in 1969.
• Linux systems are the product of open-source projects cloning Unix programs, or original UNIX program
• Linux systems use a complex history involving forks and rewrites

Open Source Details

• Open-source software means one can run, modify, and redistribute it Chapter 3 covers the philosophy and legal issues around open-source software.

Key Linux Projects and Components

• The Linux Kernel was created by Linus Torvalds in 1991.
• It was designed to be compatible with Unix kernels using the same software interfaces making its use with open source programs for other Unix versions easy.
• The GNU Project (GNU's Not Unix) was an effort by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) to develop open source replacements for core Unix OS elements.
• In 1991, tools from the FSF were already released, lacking only a kernel
• Alternatives to the GNU tools include proprietary business tools and open source tools for BSD Unix variants
• The overall tool set used on a Unix-like OS influences its features, to give any Unix variety a familiar feel compared to a non-Unix OS.
• GNU is an example of a recursive acronym

GUI and Server Differences

• A popular GUI environment for most Unix OSs is the X Window System
• Most Linux distributions use the Xorg-X11 variety of X.

GUI and Desktop Options

• Desktop Environments like GNOME, KDE Plasma, Cinnamon, and Xfce replaced commercial desktop environments on Unix
• As such, you won't find big differences between Linux and Unix in this area.
• MacOS’s commercial UNIX uses the proprietary Apply GUI rather than an open-source desktop environment that runs on the X Window System
• Unix and Linux are popular as server OSs which are used to run web, database web, and email servers
• Linux runs the same server Programs as commercial Unix versions and the open source BSDs
• Linux runs the same software as other Unix-like OSs concerning user productivity programs, and sometimes it runs more programs or runs better due to popularity and vast availability of hardware drivers for Linux.

Linux vs Other OS

• The overall, Linux is thought of as an UNIX-like OS- though it does offer broader hardware support
• Some UNIX varieties offer features that Linux lacks.
• Oracle’s Solaris UNIX uses built-in zones that handle virtual machines better than the tools currently available in Linux.

Source Code and Binary Code Note

• Source Code is human-readable ones and zeros for programmers
• Open Source is the availability of source code
• Compiler translates source code to binary for a computer to run

Linux vs. macOS

• Apple macOS is a commercial UNIX-based OS that borrows from BSD that avoids the common Linux GUI (X) and opts for it's own UX
• Mac OS ships with UNIX server programs that configure it to work like a UNIX-like OS as a network server
• Differing from Linux in the UX- Mac OS user interface is called Cocoa from programming perspective, or Aqua from the users
• Native Mac OS applications can't run directly on Linux and porting them is a nontrivial task, Mac OS is an implementation of X under Aqua
• As a result the transfer of GUI Linux and UNIX programs of Mac os is direct
• The transfer programs may have buttons, menus, and out of place features macOS for its own hardware, has license terms that forbid installation on non- apple tablets, is non-portable to other devices therefore largely limited to Apple hardware.

Linux vs. Windows

• Linux is an open-source OS- whereas Windows is a proprietary business OS.
• The open-source software and proprietary means to control a computer
• Free of Cost is Linux- however, Linux is costly to install or maintain
• Linux and Windows can both be used on a computer with an appropriate job
• Old and new hardware need operating systems of a sort
• New is familiar one or the other favors OS or user

Defining the Linux Distribution

• The Linux Distribution is made of Linux, utilities, utilities of configuration
• The distribution comes down from MacOS and Windows Creating the Linux based os, to reiterate the os

Basic Linux Components

• The Linux Kernel is a constant evolving kernel
• Distribution maintainers need to patch
• Basic the GNU and the x system Windows are critical the Linux.
• Support with the shipping of Linux is often a lot of additional material
• Like major server programs, desktop environments, and productivity tools.
• Much of Linux's person style comes from the way that is manages its startup process's
• Distributions must provide an installation software to help you out.
• Linux distribution are available from websites as a CD or dvd or a usb Drive
• This allows your system to enter either virtual or machine cloud based.

Software Packages and Types

For curiosity of trying out Linux with out a workstation, install a computer VM on MacOs or Windows.

• Some installations install the software while other need a internet access for software
• If using an install for without Internet, be sure to pick the installer

Linux Based OS

• Table 1 summarizes dozen of Linux destinations for laptop and desktop
• Few details on a system of release and requirements.

Availability is open source or even free

• Some included components are sold as money which have a support contract
• RHEL and SUSE Linux are the most obvious examples both are completely free
• Linux have a different source of its operation, the open source source Distributions will maintain a local databased after the software easy installation

Software Details

• RPM is its packaging system or Debian
• Arch Linux its package management Slack has the tarball type software for creating and searching data files

Defining Software Release Cycles

• short release circles aim to provide software, where as longer releases strives to provide a secure release

Release Skills

• As you may not know, distributors required intermediate skill administer even through some Provide administrator tools
• Do not be scared of most distributions since this guide assists in software function

OS Availability & Components

• CPU comes in an at least a duo of Platforms that is for types AMD64 or ARM for tables Linux is also on mobile operations
• One Linux user is which one to buy
• Some such a red hat in oracle is for commercial Linux and are hard for novice

Types of Systems

• Geared in advance, Linux expect people configure the installation of the software
• A lot of user for to see Linux and custom the hardware installed
• The third Linux of the distribution towards novice; this group uses Linux with no cost

Support and Configuration

The releases in most is new is every other Month and acceptable. The support is after next version typically, Alpha soft ware, or is less is more then contains, the few is the feature.