Linguistic Structure and Analysis

Language Structure

• Language is a communication toolbox with components like sounds, words, and sentences to convey meaning.
• Phonemes are the basic sounds of a language. Example: "sh" in "shoe," "th" in "that" (English).
• Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning. Example: "un-" (not), "happy," "-ness" in "unhappiness" (meaning "the state of being not happy").
• Syntax refers to how words are arranged in sentences to create meaning. English typically uses Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order (e.g., "I eat pizza").
• Semantics focuses on the meaning of words and sentences. Context can significantly alter meaning. Example: "I'm cold" (physically or emotionally).
• Pragmatics examines language use in real-world situations, including social context. Example: "Can you pass the salt?" (a request, not a question).

Levels of Linguistic Analysis

• Linguists study language in layers (levels) to understand its complexities.
• Phonology studies the sounds of a language, their patterns, and organization. Example: "p" in "pat," "k" in "cat" (English).
• Morphology examines how words are formed from smaller meaningful units (morphemes). Example "un-" and "-ness" in "unhappiness".
• Syntax analyzes the rules for combining words into sentences. Word order is crucial for understanding meaning (e.g., SVO in English).
• Semantics focuses on the meaning of words and sentences, considering context for interpretation. Words can have multiple meanings, influencing the overall message.
• Pragmatics explores language use in context, understanding intent and social conventions. It considers implied meanings beyond the literal words.

Typologies

• Languages differ in how they build words and arrange sentences (morphology and syntax).
• Analytic languages rely on word order and auxiliary words to express meaning rather than inflections. (English is an example).
• Synthetic languages utilize inflections to alter word forms depending on the function in a sentence. (Czech is an example).
• Agglutinative languages use affixes to alter meaning by attaching morphemes to words. (Turkish is an example)
• Syntactic typologies focus on sentence structures, and word order, including SVO (subject-verb-object), and SOV structures. Different languages exhibit various levels of flexibility in word order depending on the language.

Synchronic & Diachronic Study

• Synchronic study examines a language at a specific point in time, focusing on its current structure (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation).
• Diachronic study investigates how a language changes over time, tracing its development through historical stages (pronunciation shifts, grammatical changes, etc.).

Word Classes

• Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas. Verbs express actions or states.
• Adjectives describe nouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
• Pronouns replace nouns. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
• Prepositions indicate relationships between words (time, place, direction). Interjections express emotion.

Language Families

• Languages are grouped into families based on their common origins, showing ancestry.
• English belongs to the Indo-European family, the Germanic branch.
• Czech is within the Indo-European family, the Slavic branch.

Linguistic Methods & Figures

• The Comparative Method compares related languages to reconstruct their common ancestor language and understand how languages evolve over time. Key linguists include Jakob Grimm and August Schleicher.
• Structuralism, by Ferdinand de Saussure, views language as a system of interconnected signs (signifier and signified), where meaning is derived from their relationships.

Saussure's Ideas

• Langue refers to the underlying system of rules and conventions of a language.
• Parole refers to the actual use of language in conversations or written communication.

Chomsky's Ideas

• Universal Grammar proposes that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language.
• The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a theoretical component of the brain that enables language acquisition.

Prague Linguistic Circle

• The Prague Linguistic Circle emphasized the interconnectedness of elements within a sentence, focusing on how structure reflects meaning. Their work greatly influenced phonology and structuralism.

Language and Society

• Standard language is an officially recognized version, used in education and formal communication.
• Sociolects are specific forms of language used by certain social groups.
• Regional dialects are variations based on geographical location.

Writing Systems

• Pictograms use pictures for objects. Ideograms represent concepts.
• Syllabograms represent syllables. Logograms represent whole words. Phonograms represent sounds (like alphabets).

Language Acquisition & Learning

• Language acquisition is the natural process of first language development.
• Language learning involves conscious study of a second language.
• The Critical Period Hypothesis proposes an optimal period for language acquisition in childhood.

English History

• English has evolved through four main periods: Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, and Modern English, each with distinct characteristics.