280 Questions
Which two research features can help disentangle correlation from causation?
Theory and systematic empirical inquiry
How many major schools of thought are there in Leadership Research?
9
What is the focus of the trait school of leadership?
Exceptional individuals with unique leadership attributes
What was the impact of meta-analysis on the trait perspective?
It re-emerged and showed associations with leadership and leadership emergence
Who are the researchers associated with the behavioral school of leadership?
All of the above
What is an example of a consideration behavior?
Supportive leadership
What is the primary focus of the behavioral school of leadership?
Leaders' behavioral styles
What is an example of an initiating structure behavior?
Task-oriented leadership
What is the primary focus of transformational leadership?
Achieving a common goal
What is the primary distinction between leadership and management according to Bennis and Nanus?
Managers do things right, leaders do the right thing
What is the primary difference between leadership and management according to Rost?
Leadership is a multidirectional influence, management is a unidirectional authority relationship
What is the primary focus of Authentic leadership?
Achieving a common good
What is the primary function of management according to Fayol?
Planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling
What is the primary difference between managers and leaders according to Zalesnik?
Managers and leaders are generally different types of people
When did the field of management emerge?
During the 20th century
Who is credited with the earliest study of leadership?
Aristotle
What is the primary motivation for humans according to the Hierarchy of Needs theory?
The search for satisfying different needs
What is the primary function of goals according to goal-setting theory?
To direct attention
Which of the following characteristics is NOT linked to performance in goal-setting theory?
Goal flexibility
Which of the following is NOT a critique of Maslow's need theory?
The theory is widely accepted by researchers
What is the primary driver of behavior according to social-cognitive theory?
Self-efficacy
What is the primary difference between the Two-factor Theory and the Hierarchy of Needs theory?
The former takes a different view of satisfaction and suggests that dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not part of a single continuum
What is the term used to describe an individual's belief in their capability to achieve a task?
Self-efficacy
According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, what is the highest level of need?
Self-actualization needs
According to Locke & Latham (2002), what is the primary determinant of goal success?
Goal commitment
What is the primary risk of classifying workers according to their level of needs achievement?
It oversimplifies the complexity of human motivation
Which of the following is an example of a hygiene factor?
The strict minima at work that, when unmet, lead to dissatisfaction
What is the purpose of feedback in goal-setting theory?
To provide information about the process and outcome
What is the primary outcome of goal-setting theory?
Improved performance
What is the primary limitation of Maslow's need theory?
It provides only an incomplete picture of what motivates humans
What is the primary difference between goal-setting theory and social-cognitive theory?
Goal-setting theory focuses on motivation, while social-cognitive theory focuses on self-efficacy
What is the primary similarity between the Hierarchy of Needs theory and the Two-factor Theory?
Both theories suggest that motivation is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon
What is the primary limitation of the two-factor theory?
Overreliance on self-reports
What is a common criticism of Maslow's and McClelland's theories?
They have low practical value
What is the primary advantage of McClelland's theory of needs?
It has received better empirical support
What is the primary challenge of measuring needs in McClelland's theory?
They are subconscious and difficult to measure
What is the primary contribution of the two-factor theory?
It illuminates independent aspects of motivation and satisfaction
What is a limitation of the two-factor theory in terms of satisfaction?
It does not distinguish between satisfaction and dissatisfaction
What is the primary difference between the two-factor theory and McClelland's theory?
McClelland's theory focuses on subconscious needs
What is the primary criticism of the two-factor theory's methodology?
It uses methods with low reliability and low replicability
What is the primary role of a leader at the strategic level?
To orient toward strategic objectives and ensure organizational functions are aligned with the environment
What is the definition of leadership according to McGrath (1962)?
A completer who does or gets done whatever is not being adequately handled by a group
What was the primary focus of leadership definitions in the 1900-1929 period?
Control and centralization of power
What is the main critique of the trait approach to leadership?
Leaders are born, not made
What is the primary difference between leadership definitions in the 1900-1929 period and the 1930s?
The focus shifted from control to influence
What is the primary characteristic of a leader at the supervisory level?
They complement organizational systems and resolve complex tasks
What is the main limitation of leadership definitions?
There is no widely accepted definition
What is the primary theme of leadership in the 1927 definition by Moore?
Control and centralization of power
What is the primary focus of the initial perspective in the scientific study of leadership?
The exceptional individuals who show unique leadership attributes
What is the common criticism of the trait perspective?
It doesn't consider the context of leadership
What is the significance of meta-analysis in the trait perspective?
It allowed the perspective to re-emerge
What do consideration behaviors and initiating structure behaviors relate to?
Behavioral school of leadership
How many major schools of thought are there in Leadership Research, according to Antonakis & Day (2017)?
9
What is the primary focus of the scientific study of leadership, as it began in the early 1900s?
The exceptional individuals who show unique leadership attributes
What is the significance of the work done by Blake & Mouton (1964) and Katz et al.?
It identified consideration behaviors and initiating structure behaviors
What is the significance of the research design in disentangling correlation from causation?
It helps, but only in combination with theory
What is the term used to describe the five factors that constitute personality according to researchers?
The Five-Factor Personality Model
What is the primary characteristic of extraverts that makes them more likely to be successful as leaders?
They are more assertive, sociable, and dominant
What is the primary focus of the study conducted by Judge et al. (2002)?
A meta-analysis of 78 leadership and personality studies
What is the term used to describe the type of leadership that extraverts are more likely to engage in?
Transformational leadership
What is the primary characteristic of the Big-Five personality model?
It is a widely accepted framework for understanding personality
Who are the researchers associated with the development of the Five-Factor Personality Model?
Bono et al. and Goldberg
What is the primary advantage of using the Five-Factor Personality Model in understanding leadership?
It provides a comprehensive framework for understanding personality
What is the primary limitation of using the Big-Five personality model in leadership research?
It oversimplifies the complexities of personality
What is the primary focus of the approach to leadership that emphasizes the interactions between leaders and followers?
The process of influence and behaviors
According to French and Raven's (1959, 1965) typology, what is the primary concern of power bases?
The capacity to influence others
What is the primary implication of the process approach to leadership?
Leadership can be learned by anyone
What is the primary difference between leadership and power?
Leadership is about influencing others, while power is about dominating others
What is the primary critique of the trait approach to leadership?
It assumes that leadership is an innate characteristic
What is the primary implication of the debate about leadership as a neutral process?
Leadership can be morally right or wrong
What is the primary focus of the research on leadership and power?
How leaders use power to influence others
What is the primary significance of the research on leadership and morality?
It emphasizes the importance of morality in leadership
What is the primary characteristic of narcissists according to Paulhus (2014)?
They exhibit an excessive ego and show selfish behavior
What is the primary difference between Machiavellians and narcissists?
Machiavellians are master manipulators, whereas narcissists need admiration
What is the primary characteristic of psychopaths?
They are impulsive, have low empathy, and show high risk-taking behavior
What is the primary limitation of exceptionally charismatic leaders?
They can abuse their powerful positions and manipulative skills
What is the primary characteristic of excessively open individuals?
They get easily distracted, have vogue ideas, and are too anti-hierarchical or anti-conventional
What is the primary limitation of exceptionally intelligent leaders?
They can be perceived as atypical and outsiders, and devote too much time to resolving problems
What is the primary characteristic of excessively agreeable leaders?
They are overly sensitive to others' feelings and avoid interpersonal conflict
What is the primary theme of dark traits in leadership?
Dark traits can have bright sides
What is the primary purpose of the New Leadership approach?
To develop a comprehensive model of leadership.
Which leadership approach sees leaders as agents of change?
New Leadership approach
What is a key feature of Charismatic leadership?
It involves the use of emotional appeals and symbolic gestures.
What is the primary focus of Transformational leadership?
Developing a shared vision and mission.
What is the primary difference between the New Leadership approach and other approaches?
It views leaders as agents of change, not just managers.
What is a common criticism of the trait approach to leadership?
All of the above
What is the primary advantage of the New Leadership approach?
It provides a comprehensive model of leadership.
What is the primary limitation of the trait approach to leadership?
It ignores the role of situation and context.
What is a characteristic of narcissists in terms of their ego?
They have an excessive ego.
What is a key difference between Machiavellians and narcissists?
Machiavellians do not need admiration.
What is a characteristic of psychopaths?
They are impulsive and show low empathy.
What can be a dark side of being extremely extroverted?
They overestimate their capabilities and behave in grandiose ways.
What can be a dark side of being extremely agreeable?
They avoid interpersonal conflict and are overly sensitive to others' feelings.
What can be a dark side of being extremely open to experience?
They get easily distracted, have vogue ideas, and are too anti-hierarchical or anti-conventional.
What can be a dark side of being exceptionally intelligent?
They devote too much time to resolving problems rather than tackling them.
What can be a dark side of being exceptionally charismatic?
They abuse their powerful positions and manipulative skills.
What is the primary assumption of the trait approach to leadership?
Leaders are born with innate characteristics that differentiate them from non-leaders.
Who is credited with the research on the typology of power bases?
French and Raven
What is the primary focus of the process approach to leadership?
The behaviors of leaders and followers
What is the primary distinction between leadership and power?
Leadership is about influence, while power is about control.
What is the primary assumption of the debate surrounding leadership and morality?
Leadership is often a morally ambiguous process.
What is the primary difference between the trait approach and the process approach to leadership?
The trait approach focuses on characteristics, while the process approach focuses on behaviors.
What is the primary implication of the idea that 'power is shifting to followers'?
Followers will have more influence over their leaders.
What is the primary conclusion that can be drawn from the concept of leadership as a process?
Leadership can be learned and developed by anyone.
What is the primary contribution of the contingency approach to leadership?
It highlights the importance of context in leadership
What is a key aspect of the contextual school of leadership?
It considers the role of organizational structure and culture
What is the primary criticism of leadership research by the skeptics-of-leadership school?
It is based on flawed research methods
What is the primary focus of the relational school of leadership?
The relationships between leaders and followers
What is a common limitation of leadership research, according to the skeptics-of-leadership school?
It is prone to attributing leadership to external factors
What is the primary difference between the contingency approach and the contextual school of leadership?
The contingency approach considers a narrower range of contextual factors, while the contextual school considers a broader range
What is a key characteristic of the relational school of leadership?
It emphasizes the importance of leader-follower relationships
What is the primary limitation of the contingency approach, according to critics?
It oversimplifies the complexity of leadership
What is the primary motivation for an individual's behavior according to Vroom's expectancy-value theory?
To gain a reward
Which of the following relationships is NOT a component of Vroom's expectancy-value theory?
Rewards-organizational goals relationship
What is the primary focus of goal-setting theory according to Locke and Latham?
The influence of goals on performance
What is the primary difference between expectancy and instrumentality in Vroom's theory?
Expectancy is about performance, instrumentality is about rewards
What is the primary role of valence in Vroom's expectancy-value theory?
To determine the attractiveness of potential rewards
What is the primary assumption of goal-setting theory?
Goals are inherently motivating
What is the primary outcome of goal-setting theory?
Enhanced performance
What is the primary difference between Vroom's expectancy-value theory and goal-setting theory?
Vroom's theory focuses on rewards, while goal-setting theory focuses on goals
What is the common theme among transformational leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership?
They are all based on a moral perspective on leadership
What is the primary difference between leadership and management according to Rost?
Leadership is multidirectional, management is unidirectional
What is the primary function of management according to Fayol?
Planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling
What is the primary distinction between managers and leaders according to Zalesnik?
Managers do things right, leaders do the right thing
When did the field of management emerge?
In the 20th century with the industrialization of society
Who is credited with the earliest study of leadership?
Aristotle
What is the primary focus of leadership?
Influencing others to make changes to achieve a common good
What is the common theme among leadership and management?
They both are concerned with effective goal accomplishment
What is the primary benefit of trait instruments in the trait approach?
Analyzing personal strengths and weaknesses
What is a major limitation of the trait approach to leadership?
It does not consider situational factors
What are the two primary types of behaviors exhibited by leaders?
Task and relationship behaviors
What is the primary benefit of the trait approach to leadership development?
It offers benchmarks for leadership development
What is a criticism of the trait approach to leadership?
It is very limited in its usefulness for learning and training
Why is the trait approach to leadership intuitively appealing?
Because it highlights the leader component in the leadership process
What is a strength of the trait approach to leadership?
It has a century of research backing it up
What is a limitation of the trait approach to leadership?
It fails to provide a definitive list of leadership traits
What is the primary function of goals according to goal-setting theory?
To direct attention and mobilize effort
What is the primary driver of behavior according to social-cognitive theory?
Self-efficacy and motivation
What is the primary determinant of goal success according to Locke & Latham (2002)?
Goal clarity and challenge
What is the primary purpose of feedback in goal-setting theory?
To provide information on progress and adjust goals
What is the primary focus of social-cognitive theory?
Human motivation and self-efficacy
What is the term used to describe an individual's belief in their capability to achieve a task?
Self-efficacy
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic linked to performance in goal-setting theory?
Leadership style
What is the primary outcome of goal-setting theory?
Increased performance and achievement of goals
What is the primary advantage of Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model?
It considers that leaders can adapt their style over time
According to Fiedler's Contingency Theory of Leadership, what is the solution if a leader's style does not match the situation?
Change the situation to suit the leader's style
What is the primary difference between Fiedler's and Hersey and Blanchard's models?
Fiedler's model suggests leaders can adapt their style, while Hersey and Blanchard's model says they cannot
What is the primary characteristic of the AI startup example?
Creative and R&D processes with high task structure
What is the primary difference between the fast-food restaurant example and the AI startup example?
The fast-food restaurant has high turnover, while the AI startup has low turnover
According to Fiedler's theory, what is the primary solution if a leader's style does not match the situation?
Replace the leader with someone who has a style that matches the situation
What is the primary characteristic of the manager in the fast-food restaurant example?
Powerful manager but less powerful team leader
What is the primary difference between the directive dimension and the supportive dimension in Hersey and Blanchard's model?
The directive dimension focuses on task-oriented behavior, while the supportive dimension focuses on people-oriented behavior
What is the primary objective of the course in terms of leadership development?
To invite students to start their journey as a leader and help them understand the processes of leaders and followers at work
What is the primary focus of developing leaders' competencies and related self-efficacy?
Engaging in developmental activities to foster skills and confidence
What is the universal activity that is apparent in all writings, including classical Western and eastern writings?
Leadership
What is the primary goal of becoming a successful leader?
Transforming oneself into a leader
What is the primary role of the course in terms of leadership development?
To invite students to start their journey as a leader
What is the primary aspect of leadership development that involves developing leaders' competencies and related self-efficacy?
Engaging in developmental activities to foster skills and confidence
What is the primary focus of the course in terms of understanding leadership?
Understanding the processes of leaders and followers at work
What is the primary outcome of developing leaders' competencies and related self-efficacy?
Confidence in one's ability to lead
What is the key aspect of leadership that involves influencing others to achieve a common goal?
Influence
What is the primary difference between leadership and management emerging in the 1990s?
Leadership is a process, whereas management is a position
Which of the following approaches to leadership emerged in the 21st century?
Authentic Leadership
What is the primary focus of research on leadership in the 1990s?
Understanding leadership as a process
What is the key characteristic of leadership according to the definition?
A process of influencing others
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of leadership?
Maintaining order
What is the primary distinction between leadership and management according to scholars?
Leadership is a process, whereas management is a position
Which of the following is a common critique of the trait approach to leadership?
It neglects the context of leadership
What is the primary focus of the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) in relation to employee motivation?
Organizing jobs to influence employee motivation and performance
Which of the following is a historical example of job design?
All of the above
What is the result of poorly designed jobs, according to the Job Characteristics Model (JCM)?
Transformed job characteristics into stressors
What is the primary concern of transformational leadership?
Influencing others to create visions for change
What is the primary difference between leadership and management according to Rost?
Leadership is a multidirectional influence, whereas management is a unidirectional authority relationship
Who enlarged the number of characteristics linked to motivation and satisfaction?
Morgeson and Humphrey
What is job design according to Parker (2014)?
The content and organization of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities
What is the primary function of management according to Fayol?
Planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling
What is the primary distinction between managers and leaders according to Zalesnik?
Managers do things right, whereas leaders do the right thing
What is the primary advantage of the Job Characteristics Model (JCM)?
It helps to design jobs that influence employee motivation and performance
What is the primary limitation of poorly designed jobs?
They have a detrimental effect on employees' motivation, satisfaction, and health
When did the field of management emerge?
During the 20th century with the industrialization of society
Who is credited with the earliest study of leadership?
Aristotle
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Job Characteristics Model (JCM)?
Employee age
What is the primary focus of Authentic leadership?
Focusing on moral perspectives on leadership
What is the primary difference between leadership and management?
Leadership focuses on achieving a common goal, whereas management focuses on accomplishing activities
What is the primary purpose of the trait perspective in the scientific study of leadership?
To focus on exceptional individuals who show unique leadership attributes
What is the significance of the emergence of meta-analysis in the trait perspective?
It allowed the trait perspective to re-emerge and showed associations with Intelligence and Personality
What is the primary distinction between consideration behaviors and initiating structure behaviors in the behavioral school of leadership?
One is concerned with task-oriented leadership and the other with person-oriented leadership
How do the two research features of theory and systematic empirical inquiry help in disentangling correlation from causation?
They provide a framework for understanding the relationships between variables
What is the primary criticism of the trait perspective?
It is too narrow in its focus on exceptional individuals
How many major schools of thought are there in Leadership Research?
9
What is the primary focus of the behavioral school of leadership?
The behaviors of leaders
What is the significance of the early 1900s in the scientific study of leadership?
It marked the beginning of the scientific study of leadership
What is the primary focus of transformational leadership according to Bass (1985)?
Inspiring followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team or organization
Which of the following is a characteristic of the transformational approach to leadership?
Paying attention to people's emotions, values, and long-term goals
Who refined the work of Burns (1978) on transformational leadership?
Bass (1985)
What is the primary goal of idealized influence in transformational leadership?
Representing the emotional component of leadership
What is the primary distinction between transformational leadership and charismatic leadership?
Transformational leadership is a broader concept, while charismatic leadership is a narrower concept
What is the primary benefit of transformational leadership in times of uncertainty?
It fits the needs of today's expectations to be inspired and empowered to succeed
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of transformational leadership?
Focusing on hierarchical leadership structures
What is the primary outcome of transformational leadership according to Bass (1985)?
followers are motivated to do more than expected
What is the primary distinction of the New Leadership approach compared to other approaches?
It sees leaders as agents of change who transform followers
What is the primary characteristic of charismatic leadership?
It emphasizes the importance of vision and mission
What is the primary focus of transformational leadership?
Transforming followers into motivated teams
What is the primary difference between the New Leadership approach and other approaches?
It views leaders as agents of change
What is the primary contribution of the New Leadership approach?
Transforming followers into motivated teams
What is the primary theme of the New Leadership approach?
Visionary leadership
What is the primary limitation of the other approaches compared to the New Leadership approach?
They do not view leaders as agents of change
What is the primary characteristic of leaders in the New Leadership approach?
They are agents of change
What is the primary limitation of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory?
The needs are not hierarchized
What is the primary difference between the Two-factor Theory and the Hierarchy of Needs theory?
One focuses on motivation, while the other focuses on job satisfaction
What is the purpose of the hygiene factors in the Two-factor Theory?
To decrease dissatisfaction
What is the primary criticism of classifying workers according to their level of needs achievement?
It can lead to stereotyping
What is the primary focus of the Hierarchy of Needs theory?
Motivation
What is the primary difference between the Hierarchy of Needs theory and the Two-factor Theory?
One focuses on motivation, while the other focuses on job satisfaction
What is the primary limitation of the Two-factor Theory?
It oversimplifies the concept of job satisfaction
What is the primary contribution of the Two-factor Theory?
It introduced the concept of hygiene factors
What percentage of the heritable variance in leadership emergence can be explained by intelligence and personality traits?
17%
What do Arvey et al. (2007) find influenced both leadership emergence and factors that predicted leadership influence?
Genetics and family experience
What is the primary focus of the trait approach to leadership?
What traits leaders exhibit
What do Johnson et al. (2004) find regarding transformational leadership and personality traits?
A genetic correlation between the two
What is the primary advantage of the trait approach to leadership?
It is easy to understand and apply
What is NOT a focus of the trait approach to leadership?
What a leader should do, given a particular set of circumstances
What is a common misconception about the trait approach to leadership?
It is not interested in explaining what kind of leader is needed in a certain situation
What is the primary implication of the trait approach to leadership for practice?
It is straightforward to understand and apply
What is the primary limitation of the two-factor theory in terms of satisfaction?
It fails to distinguish between satisfaction and dissatisfaction
What is the primary challenge of measuring needs in McClelland's theory?
Needs are subconscious and therefore difficult to measure
What is the primary advantage of McClelland's theory of needs?
It has received better empirical support
What is the primary difference between the two-factor theory and McClelland's theory?
The two-factor theory is more focused on satisfaction, while McClelland's theory is more focused on needs
What is the primary limitation of Maslow's need theory?
It is too subjective in its measurement of needs
What is the primary contribution of the two-factor theory?
It illuminates independent aspects of motivation and satisfaction at work
What is the primary criticism of the two-factor theory's methodology?
It is too reliant on self-reports
What is the primary difference between the two-factor theory and other theories of motivation?
It is more concerned with satisfaction, while other theories are more concerned with needs
What is the primary focus of the Job Characteristics Model?
Understanding the impact of job design on employee motivation and performance
Which of the following is a consequence of poorly designed jobs?
Transformation of job characteristics into stressors
What is the primary goal of managers and researchers in designing jobs?
To understand the impact of job design on employee motivation and performance
What is the name of the theory that suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence employee efforts, persistence, and job performance?
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
What is the result of Morgeson and Humphrey's (2006) research on job characteristics?
An expansion of the number of job characteristics linked to motivation and satisfaction
What is the primary difference between a well-designed job and a poorly designed job?
The impact of job characteristics on employee motivation and performance
What is the primary focus of job design in the context of motivation?
Understanding the impact of job design on employee motivation
What is the primary outcome of designing jobs that are motivating and satisfying?
Improved employee job satisfaction and performance
What is the primary focus of the Situational Leadership Model?
Recognizing what followers need and adapting leadership styles accordingly
What is the key difference between the Situational Leadership Model and the Path-Goal Theory?
The Path-Goal Theory emphasizes followers' motivational needs, while the Situational Leadership Model emphasizes leaders' adaptation to followers' development
What is the primary goal of the Path-Goal Theory?
To explain how leaders motivate followers to be productive and satisfied with their work
What is the relationship between the directive and supportive dimensions in the Situational Leadership Model?
They are independent
What are the four leadership styles created by combining the directive and supportive dimensions in the Situational Leadership Model?
Directing, Coaching, Supporting, Delegating
What do leaders need to determine in the Situational Leadership Model?
Where followers are on the developmental continuum
What is the primary role of leaders in the Situational Leadership Model?
To adapt their leadership style to meet followers' needs
What is the focus of the Situational Leadership Model in terms of followers' development?
Developing followers' competence and commitment
What is the primary focus of self-determination theory?
To identify the three basic psychological needs
Which of the following is a fundamental component of self-determination theory?
Satisfaction of psychological needs
According to self-determination theory, what is the primary reason people strive for growth and development?
To feel competent and autonomous
How many types of motivation does self-determination theory propose?
Three
What is the primary difference between self-determination theory and expectancy-value theory?
Self-determination theory focuses on the process of motivation, while expectancy-value theory focuses on the content
What is the primary assumption of self-determination theory?
Humans have inherent growth tendencies and psychological needs
What is the primary focus of intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory?
To develop autonomy and competence
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of self-determination theory?
Proposes a hierarchical structure of needs
What is the primary characteristic of leaders who inspire and motivate their followers?
They communicate high expectations and inspire them to become committed and part of the shared vision
What is the primary focus of leaders who stimulate followers to be creative and innovative?
Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative
What is the primary characteristic of leaders who provide a supportive climate and attend to individual needs?
They provide a supportive climate and attend to individual needs
What is the primary focus of contingent rewards in leadership?
Providing clear rewards depending on performance
What is the primary characteristic of leaders who act as a positive role model for followers?
They act as a positive role model for followers
What is the primary focus of management by exception in leadership?
Controlling and correcting deviations from standards
What is the primary difference between transformational leaders and transactional leaders?
Transformational leaders focus on the motivational component, while transactional leaders focus on the exchange process
What is the primary characteristic of leaders who show high ethical standards?
They show high ethical standards
What is the primary goal of leaders according to the path-goal theory?
To satisfy subordinates' needs and improve performance
What is the primary focus of Vroom's expectancy-value theory of motivation?
The expectation of positive outcomes and valuing the task
What is the primary relationship between leaders' behavior and followers' motivation according to path-goal theory?
Leaders' behavior affects followers' motivation, which in turn affects performance
What is the primary assumption of path-goal theory regarding followers' needs?
Followers have different needs and abilities that leaders must consider
What is the primary motivation of narcissists according to Paulhus (2014)?
To gain admiration from others
What is the primary role of leaders in the path-goal theory?
To select specific behaviors that complement followers' needs and abilities
What is the characteristic of excessively open-to-experience individuals?
They are easily distracted and have vogue ideas
What is the primary difference between Machiavellians and narcissists?
Machiavellians do not need admiration from others
What is the primary focus of the path-goal theory in terms of leadership behavior?
Behavior that complements followers' needs and abilities
What is the common trait among dark personality traits?
All of the above
What is the primary implication of Vroom's expectancy-value theory for leaders?
Leaders should consider followers' expectations and values when making decisions
What is the potential drawback of exceptionally charismatic leaders?
They may abuse their power and manipulate others
What is the primary contribution of path-goal theory to the field of leadership?
It provides a framework for understanding the role of leadership in motivation
What is the primary characteristic of psychopaths?
They are impulsive and lack empathy
What is the potential drawback of extremely intelligent leaders?
They may be perceived as outsiders and devoting too much time to resolving problems
What is the primary difference between dark traits and positive traits?
Dark traits can have bright sides, while positive traits can have dark sides
Study Notes
Leadership and Morality
- Leadership is about influencing others to achieve a common good, and many theories, such as Transformational, Authentic, and Servant leadership, rely on a moral perspective.
Leadership vs. Management
- Leadership and management involve influence, working with people, and effective goal accomplishment, but they also have differences:
- Management focuses on accomplishing activities and mastering routines, whereas leadership focuses on influencing others and creating visions for change.
- Management is a unidirectional authority relationship, whereas leadership is a multidirectional influence.
Brief History of Leadership Research
- The history of leadership research is divided into 9 major schools of thought, including:
- Trait school of leadership (focuses on exceptional individuals with unique leadership attributes)
- Behavioral school of Leadership (focuses on the behavioral styles of leaders)
Classic Motivation Theories
- Hierarchy of Needs theory (Maslow, 1943):
- Suggests that we have different needs (physiological, safety, social-belongingness, esteem, self-actualization) that create tension and motivation when unfulfilled.
- Criticisms: needs are not hierarchized, needs are not sequential, motivation does not only proceed from unsatisfied needs.
- Two-factor Theory:
- Suggests that dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not part of a single continuum and have different factors.
- Hygiene factors (extrinsic factors) lead to dissatisfaction, while motivating factors (intrinsic factors) lead to satisfaction.
- Goal-setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 2002):
- Goals direct attention, mobilize effort, encourage persistence, and facilitate strategy development.
- Five characteristics of effective goals: goal clarity, challenge, goal commitment, feedback, and goal complexity.
- Social-cognitive Theory:
- Suggests that people are motivated when they believe they are capable of achieving a task (self-efficacy).
- Self-efficacy is a powerful driver of behavior and is widely validated.
Leadership in Organizations
- Leadership is functional at both the supervisory and strategic levels in organizations.
- At the supervisory level, leadership involves complementing organizational systems and resolving complex tasks and social problems.
- At the strategic level, leadership involves directing and guiding organizational and human resources, orienting towards strategic objectives, and ensuring alignment with the environment.
Definition of Leadership
- There is no widely accepted definition of leadership, and many definitions exist.
- Leadership seems easy to identify in practice, but it is difficult to define.
- There are many definitions of leadership, and each definition provides a unique view of societal and organizational trends.
Evolution of Leadership Definitions
- In the 1900s-1920s, leadership was defined as control and centralization of power, with domination as a central theme.
- In the 1930s, leadership was seen as a trait that people possess or not, with leaders being born, not made.
- In the 1930s, leadership was also seen as a process, with leadership residing in the context of interactions between leaders and followers.
Leadership and Power
- The concept of power is often linked with leadership, and leaders are often viewed as powerful people.
- Power is part of the influence process and is defined as the capacity or potential to influence.
- French and Raven's (1959, 1965) typology of power bases is a well-known research on power.
History of Leadership Research
- The history of leadership research is divided into 9 major schools of thought.
- The trait school of leadership focuses on exceptional individuals who show unique leadership attributes.
- The behavioral school of leadership focuses on the behavioral styles of leaders, such as consideration and initiating structure behaviors.
Leadership Traits
- Research has identified various traits and characteristics associated with leadership, including intelligence, extraversion, and conscientiousness.
- The Big Five personality model, which includes neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, is a widely accepted framework for understanding personality and leadership.
Dark Side of Personality in Leadership
- Dark traits, such as narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy, can have negative effects on leadership.
- Positive traits can also have dark sides, such as excessively extroverted leaders behaving in bold, aggressive, and grandiose ways.
- Dark traits can also entail bright sides, and understanding these complexities is important for effective leadership.
Leadership Approaches
- The New Leadership approach combines charismatic, transformational, and visionary leadership theories
- Contrary to other approaches, New Leadership sees leaders as defining organizational reality through vision articulation
- Charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1998), Transformational leadership (Bass, 1985), and Visionary leadership (Westley & Mintzberg, 1989) are key components
Trait Approach
- Assumes certain individuals have innate characteristics making them natural leaders (e.g., height, strength, extraversion, intelligence, fluency)
- Bryman (1992) supports this approach
Process Leadership
- Leadership is a process, not a trait, and can be learned
- Resides in the context of interactions between leaders and followers (Kotter, 1990; Northouse, 2021)
Leadership and Power
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Power is often linked with leadership, but no longer synonymous
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French and Raven's (1959, 1965) typology of power bases includes:
- Reward power
- Coercive power
- Legitimate power
- Referent power
- Expert power
Contingency School of Leadership
- Leadership is contingent on numerous factors, including:
- Leader-member interactions
- Task structure
- Position power of the leader
- Fiedler (1967, 1971), House (1971), and Kerr & Jermier (1978) contributed to this approach
Contextual School of Leadership
- Leadership is rooted in context, including:
- Organizational structure and hierarchical level
- National culture
- Leader-follower gender
- Organizational characteristics
- Crises
- Antonakis et al. (2003), Bligh et al. (2004), Liden & Antonakis (2009), Lord et al. (2001), Osborn et al. (2002), Porter & McLaughlin (2006), and Shamir & Howell (1999) contributed to this approach
Skeptics-of-Leadership School
- Critiques leadership research, questioning the validity of questionnaires and implicit leadership theories
- Eden & Leviathan (1975), Rush et al. (1977), and Weber et al. (2001) are associated with this movement
Relational School of Leadership
- Focuses on relationships between leaders and followers
- Leader-member exchange theory (LMX) is a key component of this approach (Dansereau et al., 2009; Paulhus & Williams, 2002)
Dark Side of Personality in Leadership
- Narcissism: grandiose self-promotion, selfish behavior, and need for admiration (Paulhus, 2014)
- Machiavellianism: cunning, manipulative behavior for personal gain
- Psychopathy: impulsivity, thrill-seeking, low empathy, and interpersonal manipulation
Goal-Setting Theory
- Exerting effort is directed toward a goal, with three relationships:
- Expectancy: effort-performance relationship
- Instrumentality: performance-reward relationship
- Valence: rewards-personal goals relationship
- Vroom's expectancy-value theory explains motivation through these relationships
Becoming a Successful Leader
- To become a successful leader, one needs to achieve self-insight and self-knowledge, develop leaders' competencies and related self-efficacy, and experiment with playing a personal identity as a leader.
- This involves questioning one's traits, abilities, and mindset for the role, engaging in developmental activities to foster skills and confidence, and discovering one's values and worldview.
Understanding Leadership
- Leadership is a captivating idea that has been explored in various writings, including classical Western and Eastern philosophies.
- It involves influencing others to make changes to achieve a common good, and can be used for both good and bad purposes.
- Leadership is a moral process that requires a neutral perspective, and various styles, such as transformational leadership, rely on a moral perspective.
Leadership and Management
- Leadership and management are often compared and differentiated, with similarities in involving influence and working with people to achieve goals.
- However, leadership is about creating visions for change, whereas management involves accomplishing activities and mastering routines.
- The primary management functions include planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling.
The Trait Approach
- The trait approach suggests that organizations work better when people in managerial positions have designated leadership profiles.
- It is useful for personal awareness and development, helps identify leaders, and offers benchmarks for leadership selection.
- However, it has limitations, such as failing to consider situational factors and focusing only on traits rather than leadership outcomes.
Behavioral Approach
- Leaders engage in two primary types of behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors.
- The contingency theory of leadership suggests that leaders have a stable leadership style that cannot be changed to suit the situation.
- Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model proposes that leaders can adapt their style to suit the situation and must continuously assess the situation and team competence/motivation.
Goal-Setting Theory
- Goal-setting theory suggests that goals direct attention, mobilize effort, encourage persistence, and facilitate strategy development.
- Goals should have clarity, be challenging but achievable, and have clear expectations and feedback.
- Goal commitment, feedback, and complexity are also critical factors in goal-setting theory.
Leadership Concepts
- Leadership can be used for good or bad things
- Most definitions of leadership treat morality in a neutral fashion
- Leadership involves influencing others to achieve a common goal
- Transformational leadership is based on achieving a common good
- Authentic leadership and Servant leadership are other moral perspectives on leadership
Leadership vs. Management
- Leadership and management are often compared and differentiated
- They involve influence, working with people, and effective goal accomplishment
- Management functions include planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling
- Leadership is a multidirectional influence, whereas management is a unidirectional authority relationship
- Managers do things right, while leaders do the right thing
History of Leadership Research
- The study of leadership can be traced back to Aristotle
- The field of management emerged with industrialization in the 20th century
- Research on leadership is consolidating and diversifying
- Focus areas include followers' perceptions, servant leadership, and adaptive leadership
Leadership Definitions
- Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group to achieve a common goal
- Key aspects of leadership include influencing others, goal pursuit and attainment, and shared goals
- Leadership happens within the context of a group
- Context is important, as what works in one situation may not work in another
Leadership Research Streams
- Trait school of leadership: focuses on exceptional individuals with unique leadership attributes
- Behavioral school of leadership: focuses on the behaviors of leaders and their impact on followers
- Other schools of thought include:
- Contingency theory
- Path-goal theory
- Leader-member exchange theory
- Authentic leadership
- Servant leadership
- Transformational leadership
Transformational Leadership
- Originated in the 1980s by Bass, refining Burns' (1978) and House's (1976) work
- Emphasizes intrinsic motivation and follower development
- Motivates followers to do more than expected by raising their levels of consciousness, getting them to transcend self-interest, and moving them to address higher-level needs
- The full range leadership model includes idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and individualized consideration
Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
- Refers to the content and organization of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities
- Influences employee efforts, persistence, and job performance
- Five dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
- Poorly designed jobs can transform job characteristics into stressors and negatively impact employees
The New Leadership Approach
- The New Leadership Approach is composed of several interrelated theories, including Charismatic Leadership, Transformational Leadership, and Visionary Leadership.
- This approach views leaders as agents of change who transform followers into highly inspired, energized, and motivated teams through emotional appeals, symbolic gestures, and a combination of influence mechanisms.
Born vs. Made Debate
- The born vs. made debate questions whether leadership is innate or can be developed.
- Research from the trait approach suggests that 17% of the heritable variance in leadership emergence can be explained by intelligence and personality traits.
- Studies have found that genetics influence both leadership emergence and factors that predict leadership influence, such as family experience and work experience with leadership.
Implications for Practice
- The trait approach is leader-centric and focuses on identifying the traits that effective leaders exhibit.
- This approach is popular among practitioners and the public due to its simplicity and focus on individual traits.
- The trait approach does not consider the situation or the type of leader needed in a particular context.
Classic Motivation Theories
-
The Hierarchy of Needs Theory suggests that individuals have different needs, and the search for satisfying these needs creates tension and motivation.
-
The needs are categorized into five levels: physiological, safety, social-belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
-
Research has not validated the theory, and the needs are not necessarily hierarchized or sequential.
-
The Two-Factor Theory suggests that dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not part of a single continuum, and that hygiene factors (extrinsic factors) and motivating factors (intrinsic factors) are different.
-
The theory is popular but has several limitations, including overreliance on self-reports and low reliability and replicability of empirical results.
-
McClelland's Theory of Needs focuses on psychological needs, including the need for achievement, affiliation, and power.
-
The theory has received better empirical support than the Hierarchy of Needs Theory but has less practical impact.
Motivating through Job Design
- The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence employee efforts, persistence, and job performance.
- The JCM describes jobs in terms of five dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
- Later research expanded the number of characteristics linked to motivation and satisfaction.
- Poorly designed jobs can transform job characteristics into stressors, having a detrimental effect on employees' motivation, satisfaction, and health.
Leadership Models
- The Situational Leadership Model proposes that leaders adapt their style to meet the needs of their followers, considering their developmental continuum of competence and commitment.
- The model has four leadership styles: delegating, supporting, coaching, and directing.
- Directive and supportive dimensions are independent, and leaders can enact both.
Path-Goal Theory
- Path-Goal Theory focuses on the relationship between leaders and followers, and their needs and motivations.
- Leaders should use a style that best meets followers' motivational needs, which may be missing.
- The theory aims to explain how leaders help followers achieve their goals by selecting specific behaviors suited to their needs and situation.
Vroom's Expectancy-Value Theory
- Vroom's Expectancy-Value Theory suggests that people act because they expect positive outcomes and value the task.
- The theory focuses on three relationships: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
The Dark Side of Personality in Leadership
- Narcissists are grandiose self-promoters who strive for admiration, exhibiting excessive ego and selfish behavior.
- Machiavellians are master manipulators who pursue long-term calculated social manipulation.
- Psychopaths are characterized by impulsivity, low empathy, and interpersonal manipulation.
- Positive traits can also have dark sides, such as excessively extroverted, agreeable, open, intelligent, or charismatic leaders.
Contemporary Motivation Theories
Self-Determination Theory
- Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a meta-theory of well-being and performance, comprising autonomy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and satisfaction of psychological needs.
- SDT suggests that people strive for growth and development, preferring to feel in control of their actions, and that three basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are essential for self-growth.
- The theory considers three types of motivation: amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic motivation, with six distinct regulations.
Expectancy-Value Theory and Motivation
- Expectancy-value theory focuses on the process of creating motivation, describing leaders who act as positive role models, convey an ideological vision, attract admiration, and show high ethical standards.
Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation, and Individualized Consideration
- Inspirational motivation describes leaders who communicate high expectations, inspire commitment, and increase followers' confidence and self-efficacy.
- Intellectual stimulation describes leaders who stimulate followers to be creative and innovative, challenge their own beliefs, and question existing assumptions.
- Individualized consideration describes leaders who provide a supportive climate, attend to individual needs, act as coaches and advisers, and create new learning opportunities.
Transactional Leadership Factors
- Contingent rewards describe leaders who provide clear rewards depending on performance and obtain agreement on what needs to be done.
- Management by exception describes leaders who engage in a control process, focusing on deviations from expected performance.
This quiz explores the concept of leadership and its relationship with morality, including influential styles such as transformational leadership and servant leadership.
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