Language and Linguistics: Theories & Methods

• There are many myths about language.
• Key figures in linguistics include Franz Boas and Edward Sapir.
• Concepts include linguistic relativism, determinism, indeterminacy, and equality.
• Anthropology has multiple subfields.
• It is important to distinguish between linguistic anthropology and anthropological linguistics.
• Linguistics explores what we know about language, including linguistic competence and performance.
• Linguistics also has various subfields.

Theories and Methods

• Structural Linguistics studies language through arbitrariness and relational meaning.
• Language can be seen as a system.
• Ferdinand de Saussure contributed significantly to structural linguistics.
• A sign consists of the signified and the signifier.
• Noam Chomsky is a prominent figure.
• Plato's Problem concerns how we know so much given our limited experience.
• Generative Grammar and Universal Grammar are key concepts.

Anthropological Approaches

• Americanist Anthropological Linguistics is significant.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis relates to linguistic relativism.
• Linguistic Anthropology and Sociolinguistics are fields of study.
• Dell Hymes and John Gumperz are key figures.
• Speech activities occur within speech communities.
• Social Constructivism is an important perspective.

Fieldwork Components

• Participant Observation is a key technique.
• Bronislaw Malinowski is associated with participant observation.
• Distinctions exist between informants and consultants.
• Data elicitation and fieldworkers contribute to research.

Phonetics

• Phonetics has subfields.
• Phonetic transcription is a tool for representing sounds.
• IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is used for transcribing words.
• Articulatory Phonetics focuses on speech organs.
• Understanding the anatomy of speech organs is essential.
• Vowels and consonants are the basic sound types.

Consonants

• Consonants are classified by whether they are voiceless or voiced.
• Place and manner of articulation are key features.
• The consonant chart organizes consonant sounds.

Vowels

• Vowels are described by height, frontness, roundness, and tenseness.
• The vowel space chart is a visual representation of vowel articulation.

Phonology

• Phonology considers phonemes vs. allophones.
• Canadian raising is a phonological phenomenon.
• Allophones of sounds such as [t], [l], and [w] exist.
• Phonological knowledge is essential.
• Phonological problems can arise.
• Separate phonemes from two allophones.
• Minimal pairs differentiate phonemes.
• Phonetic environment influences sound.
• Canadian raising is an example of phonological variation.

Morphology

• Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning.
• Allomorphs are variations of morphemes, like the plural -s or the prefix -in.
• Affixes are added to words.
• Bound vs. free morphemes is a distinction.
• Simple vs. complex words differ in structure.
• Derivation vs. Inflection are types of word formation.

Syntax

• Syntax involves word order.
• Constituent analysis breaks down sentence structure.
• Rewrite rules and transformational rules are syntactic tools.

Non-Verbal Communication

• Samuel Morse contributed to communication.
• Semiotics studies signs and symbols.
• Paralinguistics concerns vocal cues.

Kinesics

• Kinesics studies body movement.
• Kinemes and components relate to movement analysis.

Proxemics

• Proxemics studies spatial relationships.
• Proxemic zones define personal space.
• Haptic behavior involves touch.
• Sign languages use cheremes.

Writing

• Protowriting is early writing systems.
• Rebus writing uses pictures for sounds.
• Chinese characters are logographs.
• Cuneiforms and Hieroglyphs are ancient scripts.
• The Rosetta Stone aided in decipherment.
• Jean-François Champollion played a key role in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs.
• Syllabary systems include Japanese and Cherokee.
• Alphabets represent sounds.

Design Features of Language

• Charles Hockett identified key features.
• These include:
• Vocal-auditory channel
• Broadcast transmission and direction reception
• Rapid fading
• Interchangeability
• Feedback
• Specialization
• Semanticity
• Arbitrariness
• Also:
  • Iconicity
  • Onomatopoeia
• Discreteness is a feature.
• Cultural transmission occurs.
• Prevarication involves lying.
• Reflexiveness allows language to describe itself.
• Learnability is possible.
• Displacement refers to talking about things not present.
• Productivity (Creativity) exists.
• Duality of Patterning is present.

Animal Communication

• Speaking experiments have been conducted.
• Gua and Viki were subjects.

Signing Experiements

• Washoe, Koko, and Nim Chimpsky participated.

Non-Signing Experiments

• Sarah and Kanzi were involved.
• Non-human primate communication shows some productivity, displacement, and duality of patterning.