Language and Culture

Introduction

• Language distinguishes humans
• Language is universal and innate, evolving with human culture
• Shared intentionality requires and is facilitated by language
• Facilitates creation and navigation of social networks. It also allows for problem-solving and symbolic representation of culture
• Sensory metaphors are more memorable through stronger associative cues
• Language systems are unique to each culture, influencing and reflecting it

Cultural Influences on Verbal Language: Structure

• Lexicon: vocabulary (e.g., "tree," "eat")
• Syntax and Grammar: sentence structure rules (e.g., "cat" to "cats")
• Phonology: pronunciation rules (e.g., “new” ≠ “sew”)
• Semantics: word meaning (e.g., "table" is an object with four legs)
• Pragmatics: language in context (e.g., "It's cold" implying "close the window")

Additional Terms

• Phonemes: smallest units of sound (“l” vs. “r” in English and Japanese); geographically close languages share more phonemes
• Morphemes: smallest units of meaning (“un-,” “ir-” in “uncooperative,” “irregular”)

Culture and Language Acquisition

• Humans can produce all phonemes but learn only those needed in their culture
• Language acquisition requires social interaction
• Development proceeds from phonemes to morphemes to words (lexicon) to sentences
• Language enables infinite expression from finite sounds

Cultural Influences

• Culture influences which sounds are encouraged, syntax/grammar of words, derivations of semantics and how language is used within context

Ecological and Social Factors

• Arid climates correlate with simpler tone patterns due to vocal cord constraints
• Vocabulary size is larger in urban children versus rural children
• Language transmits and is a product of culture
• Cultural context improves language acquisition

Language Differences across Cultures: Lexicons

• Self-other referents vary English generally uses "I" and "we"
• Japanese, Korean, Russian, Spanish use role/status-based references, reflecting status, intimacy, & group orientation
• Counting systems vary
• Korean uses different words for counting people versus objects
• English has unique numbers 1-19 influencing math achievement within the base-10 system
• Unique concepts exist
• Schadenfreude is a German word for joy in others' misfortunes, reflecting hypercognition
• Hypocognition means lacking words for a concept

Culture and Pragmatics

• Dropping pronouns(I/we/you) is more common in collectivistic cultures
• Speech behaviors vary across cultures: apologies, narratives, compliments, criticism, self-disclosure, sympathy, and saying thank you
• Communication styles differ, as does direct versus indirect, succinct, and elaborate communication
• High context relies on meanings in context while low context relies on meaning explicit in words
• Honorific speech reflects social hierarchy in some cultures

Language and Thought: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Linguistic relativity states that language influences thought and worldview
• Studies suggest classification occurs in Navajo children occurred by shape, matching its verb structure
• Bloom and colleagues provide additional evidence of linguistic influence on cognition

Challenges to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Color term study across 20 languages revealed universal color perception across focal pionts
• Dani people with only 2 color words performed similar to English speakers in color memory tasks
• Color term hierarchy establishes all languages have black and white terms, and adds more color words in stages
• Language does not determine thought
• Deaf children invent languages and isolated adults think abstractly without language
• Babies do basic math and thought includes visual and nonverbal elements

Classification of Sapir-Whorf Tests

• Level 1 (Lexicon): Least complex and weakest support
• Level 4 (Grammar/Syntax): More complex and meaningful for testing

Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication: Definition

• Nonverbal behaviors are all dynamic behaviors excluding words that convey messages
• Nonverbal behaviors include: facial expressions, vocal cues, gestures, body posture, interpersonal distance, touch, gaze, and visual attention
• It is essential for communication including intercultural contexts

Nonverbal Behaviors

• Nonverbal behavior conveys meaning without words via gestures, tone, posture, and gaze
• Nonverbal communication relies on emotions
• Verbal content is focused on more than nonverbal signals despite its importance

Culture and Gestures

• Hand movements are either speech illustrators accompanying speech or emblems conveying meaning
• Speech illustrators animate speech
• Emblems are culture-specific gesture substitutes for words or phrases
• Latin America and the Middle East are considered high gesture cultures and East Asia is considered a lower gesture culture
• Emblem meanings are culture specific and can be offensive -A-OK sign is obscene in some European cultures
• An inverted peace sign insults in England/Australia
• Horns gesture refers to anger, devil or sex
• Distinct cultural gestures diminished with assimilation into American culture
• Cultural differences in emblematic gestures were documented globally

Culture and Gaze

• Evolutionary roots are associated with dominance, aggression, or affiliation in animals & humans, as well as communication of social power
• Arab individuals maintain direct and sustained gaze more than Americans
• Contact cultures use more gaze, touch, and close distance
• Non-contact cultures use less of each
• Thinking patterns influence gaze differently across cultures

Respect and Gaze by Culture

• Western Cultures: Direct eye contact = respect
• Other Cultures: Looking down or away = respect
• Misconceptions about gaze include not making eye contact is interpreted as lying

Cultural Messages

• Cultural gaze rules may cause misjudgments about truthfulness or credibility

Culture and Voice

• Paralinguistic cues are nonverbal vocal elements such as tone, pitch, speech rate, volume, & use of silence that communicate emotion and intent beyond words spoken
• Vocal expressions of emotion are cross-cultural such as anger, fear, sadness, and disgust
• Expressive cultures are louder and faster, and less expressive cultures are quieter and slower
• Varying vocal patterns in languages can be misinterpreted across cultures

Culture, Interpersonal Space, and Touch: Definition

• Proxemics: use of space in interpersonal relationships
• Haptics: use of touch
• Interpersonal distance has four zones: intimate, personal, social, and public

Cultural Variations in Proxemics

• Arab men prefer close, direct orientation, with intense eye contact
• Latin Americans prefer closer interactions than Europeans
• Indonesians prefer closer proximity than Australians
• Italians prefer closer proximity than Germans/Americans
• Colombians prefer closer proximity than Costa Ricans
• The Japanese sit farthest, Venezuelans closer, and Americans at an in-between distance

Cultural Differences in Space and Touch

• Doll placement reflects cultural norms in space usage
• Classification applies to contact vs. non-contact culture
• Cultural regulation of touch where violations are aversive

Intracultural and Intercultural Communications: Cultural Influences

• Communication is a complex exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages
• Key components: exchanged messages via encoding and signals via channels and decoding
• Communication involves encoder encoding a message via signal into a channel, interpreted by the decoder which becomes an encoder, and so on
• Verbal choices, nonverbal signals, encoding styles, and decoding interpretations are affected by culture

The Process of Intracultural and Intercultural Communication

• Intracultural communication happens between people of the same culture and is smooth since decoding occurs from shared "ground rules"
• It can be described as a gift exchange- in familiar "boxes"
• Intercultural communications happen between different cultures, are more complex due to different encoding/decoding systems and involves likelihood of misunderstandings

Obstacles to Intercultural Communication

• Assuming others are alike leads to misinterpretations
• Words have varied meanings dependent on cultural context
• Nonverbal misinterpretations can occur
• Preconceptions and stereotypes block understanding
• The tendency to evaluate introduces bias
• Anxiety leads to rigid thinking
• Communication differences increase confusion between cultures which occurs due to unconscious enculturation

Uncertainty and Risk of Conflict

• Interactions carry uncertainty about word meanings, intention, and nonverbal cues,
• Misinterpretations increase the risk of conflict, value violations, negative emotions, and threats
• East Asians used collectivistic communication, and cultural became more pronounced between intercultural settings than intracultural ones

Improving Intercultural Communication

• Mindfulness requires habit, expectations, and cultural patterns
• Uncertainty reduction minimizes confusion in new intercultural encounters
• Mindfulness helps manage intercultural conflict

Key Components of Mindfulness

• Motivational Factors such as Needs, attraction, social bonds
• Knowledge Factors such as Expectations, multiple perspectives and knowledge of alternative interpretations
• Skill Factors such as Empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, ability to adapt behavior and gather information
• These lead to better message interpretation
• Higher intention to self-disclose and nonverbal expressiveness in culturally dissimilar settings suggesting a need to reduce uncertainty

Face and Emotion Regulation in Communication: Definition

• Face is one's social image and reputation in public
• It is important in collectivistic and honor cultures
• Individualists should avoid confrontation, listen mindfully, and let go of conflict
• Collectivists should express opinions openly, take responsibility, and use direct communication

Emotion Regulation

• Emotion regulation is key in cultural communication
• Success leads to constructive engagement, avoiding stereotypes, and blocking intercultural openness
• Leads to critical reflection, flexibility, new mental models of others
• Strong language and communication skills require emotion regulation

Bilingualism, Multilingualism and Culture

• Language is a symbolic system where potentially two cultural meaning systems are held
• Speaking one language can activate one framework; speaking another activates a different one
• English and Korean bilinguals showed two different personality profiles when using both languages
• Observers of bilinguals confirmed differences
• Those using both languages perceive emotional expressions differently
• Introduced code switching which involved bilinguals navigating multiple identities

Hong et al Study

• Primed biculturals (American and Chinese) with American symbols leads to internal attributes
• Priming with Chinese symbols leads to external attributes suggesting culture's effect on language
• Switching is common among biculturals integrated into both cultures

Bilingual Advantage for Cognitive Performance

• A number of studies suggest possible bilingual advantages which lead to executive functioning and inhibitory control
• Cognitive advantages are absent where suggested by confounded variables

Perceptions of Bilinguals

• Speaking a second language may lead to negative stereotypes since it is slower and contains ambiguous messages
• There is difficulty in in cognitive processing due to using a less familiar language
• One should not interpret this deficiency of cognitive deficiency

Cognitive Interference

• There is stronger decline in a foreign language with greater difference in language
• Cognitive interference in bilinguals is normal not a deficit
• It is due to language speed where negative association is rooted in ethnocentrism and stereotyping

Conclusion

• Both impacts cultures and culture impacts languages which influences identity and behavior
• Verbal/nonverbal languages often have learned cues
• Misunderstanding different behaviors can lead to breakdowns in communication
• Decreased "we" and increased "I" statements implies a rise in individualism.
• Communication includes verbal and nonverbal methods and cultural influence in encoding and decoding
• Conflict and misunderstandings are natural aspects, extending to digital communication in platforms like email and Facebook