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Questions and Answers
What does the study of Kinesics primarily focus on?
Which term describes the smallest units of sound in a language?
What is the main focus of Sociolinguistics?
What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggest?
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Which concept refers to a chosen set of words particular to a group?
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What is the purpose of Linguistic Ethnography?
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Which of the following best describes what a Dialect is?
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How do prescriptivists view language change?
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Which factor is NOT typically associated with the evolution of American English?
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What is a major consequence of the Northern City Vowel Shift?
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What term refers to the written rules of a language?
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Which of the following aspects is linked to accents beyond mere sound?
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What is the main concern related to the use of slang in American English?
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Which statement about linguistic influences is true?
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What is the primary reason for the S-shaped spine in humans?
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What distinguishes a foramen magnum located at the base of the skull?
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Which of the following features of the pelvis affects childbirth in humans?
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What is one major advantage of bipedalism?
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What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggest about language?
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What is a notable feature of endangered languages?
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What aspect of biological species is critical for classification?
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Which factor greatly influenced Neanderthal extinction?
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What is paleopathology primarily concerned with?
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How does language diversity correlate with biodiversity?
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What was the effect of cultural genocide on Indigenous languages?
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What is the significance of the holotype in species classification?
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What role does natural selection play in evolution?
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Study Notes
Language
- Language is a system of symbols used to communicate and encode experience
- Gestures are a form of nonverbal communication using body movements for language
- Call systems consist of simple vocalizations like laughing, sobbing, and screaming
- Kinesics is the study of nonverbal communication
- Symbols represent something else, with no inherent relationship to the object they represent
- Semiotics analyzes signs, symbols, and their usage
- Learning a language involves understanding phonemes, morphemes, and grammar
- Phonemes are the smallest sounds in language
- Morphemes are patterns of sound that make up words, representing meaning
- Grammar is a set of rules governing the use of morphemes
- Pragmatics examines language in the context of its use, analyzing why specific words are chosen in certain situations
- Linguistic ethnography observes and studies language in cultural contexts
- Linguistic labs facilitate research and experiments related to language
Sociolinguistics
- Sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and social interactions
- Focal words are a set of terms and distinctions important to a specific group
- The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that different languages create distinct ways of thinking
- Dialects are variations of a language with unique phoneme and syntax variations used by specific groups
American English
- People across the US have distinct accents, influenced by geographic location
- NYC may be considered the English language capital due to its impact on global usage
- John Simon, a language prescriptivist, believed that the English language should not be allowed to change
- American English is constantly evolving and incorporating slang from various sources
- Many terms added to the dictionary originate from popular media like magazines or news
- Descriptivists observe and analyze changes in language without necessarily advocating for conformity
- Hip-hop has influenced the use of certain words and expressions among young people
- Instant messaging has contributed to more informal written English, characterized by punctuation and capitalization omission, as well as abbreviations
- American English has borrowed from other languages, raising questions about potential English displacement by Spanish
- Standard American English aims for a neutral pattern not tied to a particular locale
- The "r-less" pronunciation often associated with International English originated in England and spread to major US cities in the East
- After WWII, there was a conscious effort to use the “r” sound in these urban areas, which is not entirely aligned with American pronunciation
- Philadelphia stood out among East Coast cities for its use of the "r" sound, playing a pivotal role in disseminating American English westward
- Americans may exhibit a conscious effort to avoid being "too correct" in their speech
- The midwest, particularly Ohio, is often perceived as having the most accurate form of American English
- Regional accents in the south are commonly seen as "bad English" but are sometimes valued for their distinct characteristics.
- Pittsburgh has a unique dialect, with its own vocabulary and pronunciation
- People may identify with their place or group through their speech patterns
- Grapholect refers to the written rules of a language
- Some linguists believe that communication can be maintained despite dialect variations, as long as the written form remains consistent
- Individuals are employed in newspapers as language editors to ensure proper word usage
- The influence of spoken language on written language contributes to language challenges
- The Northern city vowel shift has made the language less easily understood. Language is becoming a more divisive factor in the US
- African American English, despite being perceived by some as "bad English," has deep roots in English languages spoken around the world
- Contemporary African American dialects originated from a simplified English known as "pigeon," initially used by traders in Western Africa
- Slave factories and trade languages influenced the development of African American English
- Students speaking differently in schools were often perceived as unteachable, leading to communication barriers and a lawsuit advocating for language inclusivity in education
- The spread of street English can contribute to mainstream language adoption
The Neutral Accent
- Call centers initially promoted the use of a neutral "American accent"
- These training programs, supposedly anti-capitalist in origin, established a "global" accent largely rooted in Indian pronunciation
- Specific vowel sounds were practiced to achieve an American-sounding voice
- Hiring individuals with neutral accents often reflects the perception that similar speech leads to better communication
- Accents are not merely sound patterns but tied to social identites
- The notion of a neutral accent is inherently flawed, as no accent can truly be considered neutral
- The mother tongue influence impacts accents, as people from different backgrounds might struggle to distinguish between accents from other places
- Accent trainers must be able to identify subtle sound variations and pinpoint "non-neutral" features
- The neutral accent in call centers was primarily an Indian-English accent, not a true Americanized one
- Around 2002, it was revealed that Indian employees had been trained to sound American, which led to customer frustration and a shift away from the American accent
- People without significant exposure to the Indian community may find it difficult to distinguish between different Indian-English accents
- The same Texan accent could be perceived as different by someone from New York
Bipedalism
- Primates, as mammals, were typically quadrupeds, making bipedalism unusual for their evolutionary history.
- Primates adapted to arboreal (tree) life and changing environments.
- Primates adapted to climbing and brachiating in trees, equipped with dexterous hands, a characteristic unique to mammals
- Primates, including humans exhibit sexual dimorphism, which refers to distinct differences in appearance or size between male and female members of a species.
- The first fossil evidence of a species diverging from other primates, paving the way for bipedalism, emerged over 7 million years ago
- There is only ONE true bipedal species among the 4,000 extant mammals
- Quadrupedalism was the norm for most mammals due to advantages in speed and balance
- While some quadrupeds can walk upright occasionally, it is not their natural mode of locomotion.
- Significant anatomical changes occurred in the skeletal structure to accommodate walking on two legs
- The spine: Changes in the spinal curvature are essential for bipedalism, adapting from the "C" shape found in quadrupeds to the "S" shape found in humans.
- The pelvis: Adaptations to the pelvis enhance stability during bipedal walking
- The femur: The femur angle, specific in humans, contributes to proper weight distribution during bipedalism
- The foot: Specific adaptations in the foot bones and musculature enhance balance and support for bipedal locomotion
- Primates emerged over 65 million years ago
S-Shaped Sign
- Ancestors acquired an S-shaped sign to help with walking upright.
- This allowed for free use of the hands.
Skull Differences
- The foramen magnum (hole in the skull) facilitates upright walking.
- It is located at the bottom of the skull, unlike the back of the skull in quadrupedal animals.
Pelvic Differences
- A bowl-shaped pelvis holds up organs for bipedal animals.
- The human pelvis is flat and broad, providing support, but leading to a narrow birth canal.
Femur Angle
- The femur angle ensures the foot is positioned directly under the pelvis.
- This enables efficient upright walking and load-bearing.
Bipedalism
- Bipedalism evolved for various reasons, including:
- Energy efficiency
- Visual surveillance for food and predators
- Mating factors
- Carrying tools, food, and babies
- It's likely a combination of these factors.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- Language influences our thinking and how the world looks.
- People speaking different languages may see the world differently.
- Using a wider vocabulary may enhance understanding and make someone appear more intelligent.
English as a Global Language
- English is the most spoken language in the world, with Mandarin in second place.
- A language tree illustrates the relationship between languages.
Language Uniqueness
- Dialect Continua: Languages evolve as you travel, making it difficult to define language boundaries.
- Mutual Intelligibility: If speakers of two languages can understand each other, it's not a unique language.
- Language hotspots are areas with concentrated language diversity.
- Papua New Guinea has the highest concentration of languages.
- Europe has a lower concentration of languages per person.
Endangered Languages
- A language spoken by very few people and not learned by the next generation is endangered.
- These languages may go extinct in the near future when the last speaker dies.
- This loss represents a cultural and understanding of the world.
Biodiversity and Language Loss
- Biodiversity hotspots overlap with language diversity hotspots.
- The loss of biodiversity goes hand-in-hand with the loss of languages.
Language Extinction
- Languages are disappearing at an alarming rate.
- UNESCO estimates half the languages will be gone by 2100.
- This loss represents cultural knowledge and a unique worldview.
Cultural Genocide
- Cultural genocide is the deliberate destruction of a culture, including its language.
- This was sanctioned by the U.S. government until the 1980s.
Biological Anthropology
- It seeks to understand human evolution through studying present and past biological evidence.
Fields of Biological Anthropology
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Paleoanthropology:
- Studies the fossil record of early humans.
- Provides direct evidence of human ancestry.
- Explores the environment in which early humans lived.
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Osteology:
- Studies the human skeleton.
- Examines the influence of culture and diet on the human body.
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Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology:
- Studies ancient diseases and conditions by examining skeletal remains.
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Primatology:
- Studies primates, our closest living relatives.
- Compares anatomy and genetics to gain insights into human evolution.
Evolutionary Theory
- Evolution is the development of different species over time through adaptations.
-
Theories of Evolution:
-
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck:
- Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: He believed animals adapt to their environment and pass those characteristics on to their offspring. This theory is now disproven.
-
Charles Darwin:
- Fitness: The success of an organism in surviving and reproducing compared to others.
- Natural Selection: Mutations with advantageous traits allow organisms to be better suited for their environment and reproduce, passing on those traits.
- Inheritance: Passing on genes to offspring.
-
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck:
Adaptations
- Adaptations are features that aid in an organism's survival and reproduction.
Tenets of Natural Selection
- Phenotypic variation exists and is inheritable.
- Individuals with traits better suited to their environment will survive and have greater reproductive success.
Neanderthals
- Neanderthals were a human-like species that lived in Europe and the Middle East.
- They had larger brows and slightly larger brains than Homo sapiens.
- Their skeletal structure suggests a heavier build and adaptation to cold climates.
- Evidence suggests burial practices, indicating early cultural practices.
- Used Stone Tools, with a heavy reliance on meat in their diet.
- Recent studies suggest they shared blood type with Homo sapiens.
- Neanderthals may have gone extinct due to lack of genetic diversity and geographic isolation.
Bioarchaeology
- Studies human remains to understand past populations.
- It uses similar methods as paleoanthropology.
Paleoanthropology
- Analyzes ancient hominin remains to learn about past populations.
Hard Tissue
- Studies the skeleton, including bones and teeth.
Soft Tissue
- Includes other human remains like skin, hair, and organs.
Biological Species
- A species is defined by its inability to produce fertile offspring with other species.
Phenetic Species
- Species are defined by their shared physical characteristics.
Holotype and Paratype
- Holotype: The first specimen identified for a new species.
- Paratype: All other specimens belonging to that species.
Hominins
- Hominins include both extinct and living members of the human lineage.
- They evolved larger brains, used tools, and developed complex communication and culture.
Ancient Hominin Species
- Sahelanthropus tchadensis: The first hominin species (7 million years old)
- Australopithecus afarensis: Had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, smaller brains than modern humans, and was the first bipedal hominin.
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Genus Homo: Evolved 2.3 million years ago.
- Homo Habilis: Used stone tools.
- Homo Erectus: Migrated from Africa, controlled fire, created tools like Acheulean Hand Axes, and their brains grew due to protein-rich diets.
- Homo Sapiens: Evolved 300,000 years ago in Africa.
- Neanderthals: Lived in Europe and Middle East from 250,000 to 40,000 years ago. Interbred with Homo sapiens, both with larger brains.
Mortuary Analysis
- Examines burial techniques, grave goods, and rituals associated with death
- Early signs of human burial were found in Homo Naledi in South Africa.
Microorganisms
- Microscopic organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
Pathogen
- An organism that can cause disease.
Prokaryote and Eukaryote
- Eukaryotes have a nucleus and organelles in their cells.
- Prokaryotes (like bacteria) lack a nucleus and organelles.
Microbe
- Refers to a microorganism, which may or may not be pathogenic.
Germ Theory
- Specific microbes cause specific diseases.
- Louis Pasteur was a pioneer in the Germ Theory.
Historical Theories on Disease
- Miasma Theory: Bad air caused diseases.
- Humoral Theory: Disease was caused by an imbalance of bodily fluids.
- Spontaneous Generation Theory: Organisms could appear spontaneously from nonliving matter.
Plague
- A communicable disease that has had major historical impacts on humanity.
Coevolution
- The process of two species evolving together.
- Hosts evolve to resist pathogens, while pathogens evolve to overcome host defenses.
Host-Pathogen Arms Race
- A constant evolutionary battle between hosts and pathogens.
- Humans co-evolve with pathogens, creating a dynamic interaction.
Paleogenomics
- Studies ancient DNA, providing insight into past pathogen and human genetics.
Infectious Diseases and Natural Selection
- Infectious diseases are agents of natural selection, shaping human evolution.
Cultural Adaptations for Disease Prevention
- People have developed cultural practices to limit exposure to disease.
- Building elevated houses to avoid mosquitos carrying malaria.
Epidemiological Transitions
- A series of shifts in disease patterns affecting human populations.
- Shift from foraging to food production: Increased infectious diseases.
- Decline in infectious diseases and rise of chronic diseases: Modern lifestyle changes.
- Globalization of re-emerging infectious diseases: Novel infections and drug resistance.
Primate Adaptations
- Primates are our closest living relatives and provide insights into human evolution.
Jane Goodall
- Made significant contributions to primatology.
- Was the first to observe chimps using tools and eating meat.
- Founded the Jane Goodall Institute, which focuses on conservation.
Primate Taxonomy
- Taxonomy classifies primate species and their relationships.
- Primates are an order of mammals, including lemurs, monkeys, and apes.
Diversity of Non-Human Primates
- Over 400 primate species.
- Strepsirhini: Lemurs. Nocturnal, have a wet nose, and rely on smell.
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Haplorhini: Monkeys and apes. Have a dry nose and a smaller reliance on smell.
- Monkeys have tails.
- Apes lack tails.
- Tarsiers are the most carnivorous non-human primates.
- New World monkeys have prehensile tails (grasping).
- Old World monkeys have butt pads (ischial callosities) for sitting.
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Hominoids: Apes, including gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and humans.
- Have larger brain-to-body ratios.
- Exhibit complex social structures.
- Knuckle-walkers, but can stand upright.
- Closely related to humans.
Human Evolution Summary
- Humans evolved over millions of years.
- 7 million years ago: Bipedalism emerged.
- 2.2 million years ago: Stone tool use (Homo Habilis).
- 300,000 years ago: Homo sapiens evolved.
- 68,000 years ago: Humans left Africa.
Andean Adaptations to High Altitude
- Andean populations have adapted to high-altitude hypoxia (low oxygen levels) for thousands of years.
- These adaptations involve physiological and anatomical changes.
- Larger lung capacity.
- Right heart enlargement.
- Genes that aid in oxygen transportation and uterine blood flow.
- Tibetan populations show even more pronounced adaptations due to a longer history of high-altitude living
Ancient DNA and Forensics
- Ancient DNA is retrieved from remains of past individuals or organisms.
- It helps us understand human evolution, genetic relationships, and prehistoric events.
- Modern DNA contamination is a significant challenge for ancient DNA analysis.
DNA Extraction and Analysis
- Extraction: Decalcifying bones and teeth, binding DNA, and purifying DNA for analysis.
- PCR amplification is used to amplify DNA fragments for analysis.
- However, ancient DNA samples often have low copy numbers, are damaged, and may be inhibited by other chemicals.
- Verification involves repeating analysis from different extracts.
Forensic DNA
- DNA can be recovered from the environment, allowing for identification and analysis of individuals.
- Non-human DNA, such as pet hair, can be used in analysis.
- DNA can be used to predict facial features, skin and eye color, and age.
- Ancient DNA can determine relationships between individuals and past populations.
Themes in Ancient DNA
- Continuity vs. Replacement: Studying the relative contributions of ancestral populations to modern groups.
- Neanderthal Research: The role of Neanderthals in human evolution.
Biocultural Perspective on Corn
- Corn is a culturally significant food source, especially for Indigenous communities.
- The Three Sisters method of planting encourages a symbiotic relationship between corn, beans, and squash.
- There are biological connections between corn consumption and human adaptation, including the development of maize processing and the pellagra epidemic.
Biological Evolution of Cuisine
- Humans have adapted to eating corn through processing and cooking methods.
- Alkali Processing of Maize: Releases bound niacin, which can prevent pellagra, a vitamin B deficiency disease associated with corn consumption.
- Nixtamalization: A process that reduces the risk of pellagra.
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Description
Test your understanding of language as a system of symbols and its various forms of communication, including gestures and vocalizations. Explore key concepts such as phonemes, morphemes, grammar, and pragmatics. This quiz will help you grasp the intricacies of language used in cultural contexts.
