Lahuradewa: Early Farming in the Ganga Plain

• Excavations at Lahuradewa, Uttar Pradesh from 2001-2006, reveal early farming practices in the Middle Ganga Plain.
• Microcharcoal presence in lakebeds suggests consistent human activity involving vegetation burning for about 10,000 years.
• Palynological studies show vegetational history, climate changes, and early agriculture from the early Holocene.
• Early settlers at Lahuradewa practiced settled farming, marked by cord-impressed pottery.
• Domesticated rice evidence in the initial settlement phase indicates early Holocene agriculture in the region.

Background and Location

• Investigations at Lahuradewa between 2001-2006 were presented at the "International Seminar on the First Farmers in Global Perspective" in January 2006.
• Human activity existed in the area since 10,000 years BP, based on microcharcoal in lake sediments.
• Carbonized domesticated rice grains date back to the mid-9th millennium BP.
• Lahuradewa's cultural sequence, geomorphology, and pollen/phytolith studies were discussed at the seminar.
• Continued research after 2006 supports earlier findings and provides new insights into early farming cultures.
• Lahuradewa is located in Sant Kabir Nagar District, in the Sarayupar region of the Middle Ganga Plain (26° 46' N, 82° 57' E).
• The Sarayupar Plain is bordered by the Sarayu River, Nepalese Terai, and the Gandak River.
• Early excavations in the region at Sohgaura revealed a pre-chalcolithic farming phase with cord-impressed pottery, dating to the 3rd millennium BC.
• Extensive exploration led to Lahuradewa, an ancient site surrounded by a lake on three sides.

Excavation and Research Approach

• Multidisciplinary experts from various institutions were involved in the investigations.
• Investigations included archaeological excavations and palaeobotanical/sedimentological studies in the lakebeds.
• Excavations at Lahuradewa by January 2006 involved four seasons (2001-02, 2002-03, 2004-05, 2005-06).
• Trenches measuring 10 x 10 m were laid at different locations.
• Excavations revealed a 4.00 m thick habitation deposit representing five cultural periods.
• Period I (ca. 7th - 2nd millennia BC) is the Early Farming phase, with a 1.20 m deposit divided into sub-periods IA and IB.
• Periods II and III represent Developed and Advanced Farming Phases, respectively.
• Period IV corresponds to the NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) phase, and Period V to post-NBPW to Gupta times.

Early Farming Phase - Period IA

• IA deposits are about 45-50 cm thick, composed of clayey sand and kankar nodules.
• Radiocarbon dates range from ca. 7th millennium BC to the beginning of 3rd millennium BC.
• Evidence includes rammed clay-floors, burnt clay chunks with reed impressions, and post-holes, suggesting circular/oval huts with wooden posts and reed-plastered screens.
• An irregular channel (drain) connects two large depressions, dug through the lowest layer at 30-50 cm broad and 50-60 cm deep.
• Pottery includes handmade coarse red and Black-and-Red wares, often with cord impressions.
• Pottery shapes include water vessels, pedestal and knobbed bowls, sometimes decorated with applied rope-pattern.
• Plant remains include domesticated and wild rice, foxtail-millet, goosefoot, job's tear, artemisia, flatsedge, and catchfly.
• A domesticated rice husk-clot was dated to 6,409 BC.
• Lithic artifacts include a sandstone piece from the Himalayan foothills and a flake from the Vindhyan hills.

Early Farming Phase - Period IB

• IB deposits range between 50-60 cm in thickness.
• Radiocarbon dates place it between ca. 3,000-2,000 BC.
• Introduction of bowl or dish-on-stand and barley marks the beginning of IB.
• Wheat, lentil, and kodon-millet appeared in addition to rice.
• New pottery shapes include beakers, perforated vessels, and spouted pots.
• Pottery quality improves; red and Black-and-Red wares continue, with some sherds having slip or burnishing.
• Associated cultural material includes terracotta/steatite beads and charred/un-charred bones.
• Wattle-and-daub dwellings continued from sub-period IA.

Later Periods

• Period II exhibits increased agricultural production, with earthen storage bins and a concentration of carbonized grains and seeds.
• Appearance of tiles and terracotta chaukis, along with painted black slipped ware.

Palynological Studies

• A 1.00 x 1.00 m trench was excavated on the dried-up lakebed to a depth of 2.80 m.
• The 2.80 m thick lake-deposit revealed 80 cm of peat followed by 2 m of muddy sediments.
• Six radiocarbon dates determined a time span of about 10,000 years for the sediments.
• Singh et al. noted that the peat deposit (10,000 to 5,800 yr BP) accumulated at 1mm/100yr under humid conditions.
• Sedimentation increased to 1.7mm/100 yr during 5,800 - 2,188 yrs BP and to 4 - 7 mm/100yr in the last 2,000 years.
• Stable carbon isotope studies indicate a shift from C-4 to C-3 vegetation.
• Pollen analysis by Chauhan et al. showed grasses dominating between ca. 9,500 and 8,700 yrs BP.
• Climate amelioration occurred between ca. 8,700 and 5,700 yr BP, with increased monsoon rainfall.
• Cerealia pollen appeared from ca. 7,500 years BP, indicating anthropogenic activities.
• Open vegetation with patchy forests existed during 5,700-2,600 yrs BP, with increased monsoon rainfall.
• Consistent cerealia pollen from ca. 5,000 yrs BP suggests expanding agriculture, including Cannabis sativa.
• Presence of Trapa (singhara) pollen suggests consumption by local inhabitants.
• Phytolith analysis revealed variations in shape/size, with grass phytoliths dominating.
• Wild-rice phytoliths appeared since ca. 10,000 yr BP, while domesticated rice phytoliths appeared from ca. 8,300 yr BP.
• Micro-charcoal in all sediment samples indicates regular fire events caused by human activity.
• Bottom peat sediment charcoal fragments belonged to grasses, indicating dominant open vegetation during 10,000 - 7,822 yrs BP.
• Fossil diatom studies by Prasad et al. suggest rice-growing fields near the lake since 9,720 BP.

Conclusions by January 2006

• The area around Lahuradewa was largely grassland with few trees and shrubs since the early Holocene.
• Human activities occurred in the region since the early Holocene, indicated by micro-charcoal.
• Exploitation of wild rice and other plants led to rice cultivation since the 9th millennium BP.
• By the mid-7th millennium BC, domesticated rice evidence was established.
• Settlers used coarse red and Black-and-Red wares with cord marks and lived in wattle and daub shelters.
• By 5,000 BP, barley and other Harappan crops, along with domesticated animals, entered the economy, but hunting/gathering continued.

Post-Seminar Excavations

• Further excavation and analysis provided better insights into the early farming phase.
• Three new radiocarbon dates from PRL, Ahmedabad, are available for Period IA.
• Charcoal samples were treated to remove unwanted carbon before radiocarbon dating.
• Evidence for rice (Oryza sativa) includes carbonized grains, husk pieces, pottery matrix, and husk impressions.
• Recovery of a tough rachis segment with a jagged broken point indicates early domestication.
• Seasonality for fruiting covers almost all-the-year-round, indicating a sedentary settlement.
• Anatomical studies identified timber/shrubby taxa used for fuel and other purposes.
• Faunal remains from Period IA include wild mammals (gaur, sambar, deer, pig, etc.) and freshwater fish/mussels.
• Cultural components include steatite beads comparable to Harappan tradition.
• IB additions include copper artifacts: an arrowhead and a fishing hook, dating to the early 3rd millennium BC.
• Other materials include terracotta/steatite beads, a bone-awl, and a broken antler-bangle.
• IB grains/seeds include domesticated and wild rice, barley, wheat, lentil, foxtail-millet, and kodon-millet.
• Barley's association with a dish-on-stand dates to 2,700 yr BC (conventional) or 2,273 yr BC (AMS).
• IB faunal remains show more diversity, with continued use of wild mammals.
• Domestic goat bones appear, along with a panther bone.
• Clear evidence of bandicoot rat shows a species that survives alongside humans.

Rice Domestication at Lahuradewa: Discussion

• Water-sieving was used to separate carbonized plant remains.
• The lower deposits sequence was unbroken, but archaeological features did not guide plant remains deposition.
• Grain/seed recovery from Periods IA and IB was low despite water-sieving.
• Qualitative nature was the focus due to the limited sample size.
• Carbonized remains resulted from specific human activities, with uneven material preservation.
• Changes in plant exploitation are assumed based on macro-remains encountered at varying depths.
• Lahuradewa rice domestication is an important discussion point.
• In the early investigation, the sample size was small but samples were recovered from a primary context and dated by AMS radiocarbon to the 9th millennium BP.
• Domesticated rice grains were identified by shape and tough rachis reveal an uneven breaking point.
• Husk-pieces show smoother profile and arrangement of granules in regular alignment compared to weedy/wild Oryza rufipogon which have slender or sylph-like grains, which are slightly flattened or roughly round in cross view, normally with two ridges.
• About the 7th millennium BC, village farming was established and agriculture spread in the Middle Ganga Plain.
• Intact rice grains, rachis, and husk pieces conform morphologically to domesticated Oryza sativa from Period IA.
• Additional rice data from Period IA supports earlier conclusions.

Additional Analysis of Rice

• During initial excavations yielded more than a dozen of rice husk pieces and an agglomeration of husks in carbonized matter with a rachis fragment.
• The breaking point of the rachis looks rough and irregular as in the case in cultivated rice-suggesting that the spikelet detached only when harvested and needed threshing by man.
• One complete grain was recovered from a contemporaneous horizon.
• Although solitary, this elongate to somewhat oblong, flattennedand conspicuously ribbed grain corresponded to domesticated form.
• A tough rachis sample was dated by AMS radiocarbon determination to 6,409 yr BC
• Study of additional material from Period IA increased the number of rice grains .
• The grains are identifiable within the range of morphological features and are morphologically different from the shattering grains of wild species.
• Considerable intra-specific variation occurs in cultivated plants, closely related to its wildprogenitors Oryza nivara and Oryza rufipogon.
• Remains of wild or weedy Oryza rufipogonand Oryza officinalis have also been recorded from period IA at Lahuradewa.
• Fortunately rachis remains have survived preservation at Lahuradewa.
• In one case the disarticulation of spikelet byhuman activity of threshing has left jagged andirregular scar with a part of rachis still attached, as seen under light microscopy.
• With the availability of about three dozen ricegrains and the remains of rachis segments.
• Rice domestication was established inthe Middle Ganga Plain during early Holocenetimes.

Sizing and Identifying Rice

• Size of prehistoric grains has been used as adifferentiating trait between domesticatedand wild forms of rices.
• Length/Breadth x Thickness indices were used to broadly distinguish cultivars and spontanea forms.
• Except for 5 grains the rest of the grains have indices below 2, and are morphologically comparable to those of Oryza sativa complex.