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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the ventral pathway in the brain?
What is the primary function of the ventral pathway in the brain?
Which phenomenon describes quick flashes of light perceived as fluid motion?
Which phenomenon describes quick flashes of light perceived as fluid motion?
What is meant by the term 'Difference Threshold'?
What is meant by the term 'Difference Threshold'?
What happens to a person's ability to detect odor when they suffer from anosmia?
What happens to a person's ability to detect odor when they suffer from anosmia?
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How does Weber's Law relate to the perception of stimulus change?
How does Weber's Law relate to the perception of stimulus change?
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What is one function of acetylcholine in the body?
What is one function of acetylcholine in the body?
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What is the role of the corpus callosum in the brain?
What is the role of the corpus callosum in the brain?
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Which brain function is predominantly associated with the right hemisphere?
Which brain function is predominantly associated with the right hemisphere?
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What does the amygdala primarily process?
What does the amygdala primarily process?
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Which method is primarily used to track blood flow and oxygen levels in the brain?
Which method is primarily used to track blood flow and oxygen levels in the brain?
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What is the primary purpose of single cell recordings?
What is the primary purpose of single cell recordings?
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What characteristic is true regarding the thalamus?
What characteristic is true regarding the thalamus?
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What is the significance of the split-brain procedure?
What is the significance of the split-brain procedure?
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What was the main aim of the Little Albert experiment?
What was the main aim of the Little Albert experiment?
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What is pseudoscience primarily characterized by?
What is pseudoscience primarily characterized by?
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Which of the following best represents 'nurture' in psychological terms?
Which of the following best represents 'nurture' in psychological terms?
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What distinguishes a dependent variable from an independent variable in research?
What distinguishes a dependent variable from an independent variable in research?
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What does construct validity assess in a study?
What does construct validity assess in a study?
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Which psychological perspective seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of behavior?
Which psychological perspective seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of behavior?
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Which of the following defines critical thinking?
Which of the following defines critical thinking?
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What does reliability refer to in psychological measurement?
What does reliability refer to in psychological measurement?
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What role does the hypothalamus play in regulating biological functions?
What role does the hypothalamus play in regulating biological functions?
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What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex?
What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex?
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Which of the following correctly describes neurotransmitters?
Which of the following correctly describes neurotransmitters?
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What happens to the body when the adrenal glands produce hormones like adrenaline?
What happens to the body when the adrenal glands produce hormones like adrenaline?
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Which structure is primarily responsible for regulating touch and sensory information?
Which structure is primarily responsible for regulating touch and sensory information?
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What is the function of the myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the function of the myelin sheath in neurons?
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Which of the following glands is responsible for producing hormones related to sexual arousal?
Which of the following glands is responsible for producing hormones related to sexual arousal?
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What best describes the role of the basal ganglia in the nervous system?
What best describes the role of the basal ganglia in the nervous system?
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What type of nervous system activity is associated with voluntary movements?
What type of nervous system activity is associated with voluntary movements?
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Which is a consequence of damage to the thalamus?
Which is a consequence of damage to the thalamus?
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What is the primary role of the hypothalamus?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus?
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Which gland is considered the 'master gland' of the endocrine system?
Which gland is considered the 'master gland' of the endocrine system?
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What does the fovea primarily consist of?
What does the fovea primarily consist of?
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What is the purpose of the adrenal glands?
What is the purpose of the adrenal glands?
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Which condition is characterized by an inability to see distant objects clearly?
Which condition is characterized by an inability to see distant objects clearly?
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What do opponent-process cells in the visual system primarily explain?
What do opponent-process cells in the visual system primarily explain?
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Which part of the eye is responsible for bending light to focus it on the retina?
Which part of the eye is responsible for bending light to focus it on the retina?
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The hypothalamus links the nervous system with which other system?
The hypothalamus links the nervous system with which other system?
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What aspect of vision do rods primarily contribute to?
What aspect of vision do rods primarily contribute to?
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Which of the following hormones is released by the pancreas?
Which of the following hormones is released by the pancreas?
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Study Notes
Little Albert Experiment
- John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the Little Albert experiment in 1920.
- The experiment aimed to study the development of phobias in children
- A baby, known as Little Albert, was conditioned to fear a white rat by associating it with a loud, startling noise.
- This conditioning resulted in the baby displaying a fear response to any furry, white objects.
- The researchers never followed up with Little Albert, as he and his family disappeared.
- The ethical implications of the study have led to strict guidelines for research involving human subjects.
Pseudoscience
- Pseudoscience refers to beliefs or practices mistakenly considered scientific.
- Empirical evidence, based on observations and accurate measurement, forms the foundation of valid science.
- Examples of advanced measurement tools include fMRI, which helps understand brain activity.
Pop Psychology
- Pop psychology is often based on outdated, unproven, or misinterpreted research.
- It might present simplified information, even if not entirely inaccurate.
- Critical thinking is essential for evaluating information and forming accurate conclusions.
Evolutionary and Cultural Perspectives
- The "nature" perspective emphasizes biological influences on behavior.
- The "nurture" perspective highlights the impact of culture, education, and environment on behavior.
Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes
- Conscious understanding directly influences thoughts, feelings, and actions.
- Unconscious mental processes operate outside conscious awareness and are not directly observable.
Biological-Neuroscience Perspective
- This perspective focuses on understanding the biological underpinnings of human thought, action, and behavior.
- It investigates how brain structures and neurochemicals influence psychological processes.
- This perspective explores the relationship between biological mechanisms and psychological phenomena.
Variables
- Measured variables (dependent variables) are observed and recorded during research.
- Manipulated variables (independent variables) are changed or altered in a study to see their effects.
Operational Definitions
- Operational definitions define the specific procedures used to measure variables.
- This ensures consistency and clarity in how variables are measured and interpreted.
Validity and Reliability
- Validity concerns the accuracy and correctness of research findings.
- Construct validity assesses how well the chosen measures capture the variable of interest.
- Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement results.
- If a measure is not reliable, it raises concerns about its construct validity.
Acetylcholine
- Acetylcholine plays a crucial role in both inhibitory and excitatory signaling within the nervous system.
- It supports muscle function, cognitive function, and overall health.
Two Brain Hemispheres
- The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerves that facilitates communication between the two brain hemispheres.
- Contralateral organization means each brain hemisphere primarily controls the opposite side of the body.
- The split-brain procedure involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of seizures.
- The right hemisphere excels in perceptual tasks, emotional processing, interpreting facial expressions, and holistic thinking.
- The left hemisphere is dominant for verbal communication, analytical thinking, and detailed processing.
The Limbic System
- The limbic system connects older and newer brain regions, influencing essential functions.
- The hippocampus plays a vital role in memory, particularly spatial memory.
- The amygdala processes emotional significance, specifically fear.
- The thalamus serves as a sensory relay station, receiving and processing sensory information except olfaction (smell).
Brain Imaging Techniques
- Single-cell recordings: Measures the electrical activity of individual neurons.
- Electroencephalography (EEG): Records electrical brain waves using electrodes placed on the scalp.
- Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Detects magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity.
- fMRI scans: Track blood flow in the brain, revealing active regions.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Uses radioactive glucose to measure brain activity.
Cerebral Cortex
- The cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the brain, is responsible for complex cognitive skills, emotions, and mental activity.
Adrenal Glands
- Located atop the kidneys, adrenal glands produce over 50 hormones.
- They play a vital role in the "fight-or-flight" response, releasing adrenaline and cortisol to increase energy levels.
Hypothalamus
- Located near the center of the brain, the hypothalamus regulates essential survival behaviors, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature.
Pituitary Gland
- The pituitary gland is crucial for regulating various bodily functions, including hunger, sexual arousal (through the pineal gland), and sleep.
- It also plays a role in reproductive functions, releasing hormones like testosterone, estrogen, and oxytocin.
Gut Microbiome
- The gut microbiome, residing in the stomach and intestines, comprises trillions of microorganisms.
- It significantly influences mental states and behavior, potentially impacting anxiety and depression.
Primary Sensory and Motor Cortex
- Each lobe of the brain contains a primary sensory area, which receives signals from the corresponding sensory systems.
- The primary motor cortex is responsible for voluntary movements, connecting with motor neurons to control muscle activity.
Association Cortex
- The cortex surrounding the primary sensory and motor cortex is known as the association cortex.
- It integrates sensory information with existing knowledge, enabling complex cognitive functions.
Limbic System
- The limbic system bridges higher brain regions responsible for complex mental functions with older brain regions that regulate bodily functions.
- It is essential for memory, motivation, and emotion.
Basal Ganglia
- The basal ganglia are interconnected structures involved in planning and executing movements.
- Damage to the basal ganglia can lead to movement disorders like Parkinson's disease.
Thalamus
- The thalamus, located centrally within the brain, serves as a relay station for sensory information, except for olfaction.
- It plays a crucial role in regulating alertness and consciousness.
Hypothalamus
- The hypothalamus, situated below the thalamus, integrates internal bodily signals with associated feelings and behaviors.
- It regulates functions like hunger, biorhythms, reward seeking, and aggression.
Neurons
- The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information.
- The electrical message travels within a neuron, while the chemical message is transmitted across the synapse.
- Key neuron parts include dendrites: receive chemical messages, soma/body: collects and processes messages, axon: conducts electrical messages, myelin sheath: insulates the axon, terminal branches: release chemical messages, synapse: the gap between neurons where messages transfer.
Neurotransmitters
- Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released at the synapse, allowing communication between neurons.
Nervous System
- The nervous system is the body's communication network, responsible for processing and transmitting information.
- The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
- The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and sensory input, while the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary bodily functions.
- The parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to a resting state after activation.
Subcortical Brain
- The subcortical brain includes structures located beneath the cerebral cortex, essential for various functions.
- The hypothalamus: master controller of internal bodily signals and associated behaviors, regulating body temperature, hunger, and other functions.
- The thalamus: relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex, except smell, also regulates alertness and consciousness.
- The amygdala: processes emotional responses, particularly fear.
- The basal ganglia: involved in planning and executing movements, connecting brain regions to the muscles.
- The hippocampus: vital for memory, spatial navigation, and imagining the future.
Endocrine System
- The endocrine system is a network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
- Hormones are chemical messengers responsible for regulating various bodily functions.
- The adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys, produce cortisol and adrenaline for the "fight-or-flight" response.
- The hypothalamus links the nervous system and the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.
- The pituitary gland: is a master gland, controlling the release of hormones from other glands.
- The thyroid gland: regulates energy metabolism.
- The parathyroid gland: regulates calcium levels in the blood and bones.
- The pancreas: regulates blood sugar levels.
- The ovary: secretes female sex hormones.
- The testis: secretes male sex hormones.
Psychophysics
- It is a field of psychology that studies the relationship between physical characteristics of environmental stimuli and our mental perception of them.
Parts of the Eye
- The cornea: transparent outer covering of the eye.
- The pupil: opening in the iris that allows light to enter.
- The iris: the colored part of the eye, controlling pupil size.
- The lens: focuses light onto the retina.
- The retina: the light-sensitive inner layer of the eye, containing photoreceptors.
- Rods: specialized for vision in low light conditions, detecting black and white.
- Cones: specialized for color vision and sharp detail.
- The fovea: central area of the retina with a high concentration of cones, responsible for sharp vision.
Rods vs Cones
- Rods: 120 million cells, responsible for low light vision.
- Cones: 5 million cells, responsible for color vision and sharp detail in daylight.
### Trichromatic Theory
- Proposes three types of color receptors in the retina: long wavelengths (red), medium wavelengths (green), and short wavelengths (blue).
- These receptors work together to create the full spectrum of color perception.
Color Categories
- Achromatic colors: Black - absorbs all light; White - reflects all light; Gray.
- Color: reflects specific portions of the light spectrum visible to the eye.
- Blindspot: absence of light receptors resulting in a blind spot.
Visual Conditions
- Myopia: nearsightedness (difficulty seeing distant objects).
- Hyperopia: farsightedness (difficulty seeing near objects).
- Monochromacy: inability to perceive colors, only shades of gray.
- Dichromacy: difficulty distinguishing certain color pairs, often referred to as color blindness.
Color Purity
- Decreases as more wavelengths of light are combined, leading to less saturated colors.
Opponent-Process Theory
- Explains color afterimages (seeing complementary colors after staring at a color for a period).
- The waterfall illusion: downward movement perception changes to upward movement after prolonged viewing.
Ganglion Cells
- Receive visual information from the eye and transmit it to the brain.
- They are stimulated by input from rods and cones, as well as other ganglion cells.
Visual Pathways
-
Ventral Pathway:
- Located in the temporal lobe.
- Responsible for "what" - object recognition.
- Damage to this pathway can impair object recognition while preserving the ability to visually locate objects.
-
Dorsal Pathway:
- Located in the parietal lobe.
- Responsible for "where" - object location, depth, and motion.
- Damage to this pathway can lead to difficulty understanding spatial relationships and interacting with objects, while object recognition remains intact.
Phi Phenomenon
- Creates the illusion of smooth movement from flashing lights.
Parts of the Ear
- The outer ear: Includes the ear canal.
- The middle ear: Contains the ossicles (tiny bones).
- The inner ear: Contains the cochlea (responsible for sound transduction), the basilar membrane, and cilia (sensory hair cells).
Auditory Perception
- Absolute threshold: The minimum sound level detectable by an individual.
- Difference Threshold/Just-Noticeable Threshold: The smallest change in a sound that can be detected.
- Weber's Law: Perceived changes in a stimulus are proportional to the original stimulus intensity.
The McGurk Effect
- An auditory illusion where visual information influences sound perception.
Olfaction
- The sense of smell.
- Anosmia: Loss of smell.
Signal Detection Theory
- Analyzes responses based on the ability to differentiate informative patterns from distracting ones.
- It helps determine how effectively individuals identify signals within noise.
Weber's Law
- Describes the relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and the noticeable difference in its intensity.
- This law applies to all types of sensory perception.
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