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Questions and Answers
What is the most important function of the Krebs cycle?
What is the most important function of the Krebs cycle?
- Generation of electrons for transfer to the respiratory chain (correct)
- Formation of water and ATP units
- Production of CO2 for elimination from the body
- Conversion of pyruvic acid into glucose
How many ATP molecules are formed at the end of the Krebs cycle?
How many ATP molecules are formed at the end of the Krebs cycle?
- 10
- 5
- 2 (correct)
- 15
What is the fate of hydrogen ions and electrons in the electron transport chain?
What is the fate of hydrogen ions and electrons in the electron transport chain?
- Formation of water (correct)
- Formation of ATP
- Formation of pyruvic acid
- Formation of CO2
How many total ATP molecules are generated during aerobic metabolism with complete breakdown of a glucose molecule?
How many total ATP molecules are generated during aerobic metabolism with complete breakdown of a glucose molecule?
Which process refers to the breakdown of ATP without oxygen?
Which process refers to the breakdown of ATP without oxygen?
What represents an immediate source of energy for muscle cells that can be used to perform work?
What represents an immediate source of energy for muscle cells that can be used to perform work?
In which system does energy transfer from PCr play a crucial role during transitions from low to high energy demand?
In which system does energy transfer from PCr play a crucial role during transitions from low to high energy demand?
What is the process called when reversing the hydrolysis of ATP to reform ATP?
What is the process called when reversing the hydrolysis of ATP to reform ATP?
What is the main function of anabolism in cells?
What is the main function of anabolism in cells?
Which of the following is considered a fuel for cells based on the text?
Which of the following is considered a fuel for cells based on the text?
During the citric acid cycle, what happens to the acetyl group?
During the citric acid cycle, what happens to the acetyl group?
Where does most of a cell's ATP synthesis occur?
Where does most of a cell's ATP synthesis occur?
What is the reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)?
What is the reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)?
Which molecule acts as an oxidizing agent in cellular metabolism?
Which molecule acts as an oxidizing agent in cellular metabolism?
What is the additional group attached to NADP that distinguishes it from NAD?
What is the additional group attached to NADP that distinguishes it from NAD?
What is the primary function of ATP in muscle cells?
What is the primary function of ATP in muscle cells?
What is the end product of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
What is the end product of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
How many ATP molecules are generated from one molecule of glucose throughout both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
How many ATP molecules are generated from one molecule of glucose throughout both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
Which macromolecule is primarily broken down to provide substrates for the Krebs cycle?
Which macromolecule is primarily broken down to provide substrates for the Krebs cycle?
What is the main function of NAD and FAD in the context of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain?
What is the main function of NAD and FAD in the context of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain?
What is the primary fate of compounds entering stage 2 of energy extraction from foodstuffs?
What is the primary fate of compounds entering stage 2 of energy extraction from foodstuffs?
Which process accommodates glycerol from the breakdown of lipids during energy extraction from foodstuffs?
Which process accommodates glycerol from the breakdown of lipids during energy extraction from foodstuffs?
Where do electrons released by the oxidation of the acetyl group in the citric acid cycle go initially during energy extraction from foodstuffs?
Where do electrons released by the oxidation of the acetyl group in the citric acid cycle go initially during energy extraction from foodstuffs?
What is the main function of oxidative phosphorylation in energy extraction from foodstuffs?
What is the main function of oxidative phosphorylation in energy extraction from foodstuffs?
Which enzyme is responsible for the formation of lactic acid from pyruvic acid?
Which enzyme is responsible for the formation of lactic acid from pyruvic acid?
In muscle, which type of LDH is predominantly found?
In muscle, which type of LDH is predominantly found?
How does Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) indirectly affect the rate of glycolysis?
How does Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) indirectly affect the rate of glycolysis?
Which enzyme competes with mitochondria for pyruvate when glycolysis is slow?
Which enzyme competes with mitochondria for pyruvate when glycolysis is slow?
What is the consequence of resting muscle having a large free energy yield from LDH?
What is the consequence of resting muscle having a large free energy yield from LDH?
What is the primary purpose of a decrease in glycolytic rate due to PFK inhibition at low pH?
What is the primary purpose of a decrease in glycolytic rate due to PFK inhibition at low pH?
Which compound activates pyruvate kinase, the enzyme catalyzing the last reaction of glycolysis?
Which compound activates pyruvate kinase, the enzyme catalyzing the last reaction of glycolysis?
What is the primary fate of pyruvic acid in the absence of oxygen during glycolysis?
What is the primary fate of pyruvic acid in the absence of oxygen during glycolysis?
During anaerobic metabolism, what determines the fate of pyruvic acid?
During anaerobic metabolism, what determines the fate of pyruvic acid?
Which process is favored during exercise due to changes in ATP, PCr, and ADP concentrations?
Which process is favored during exercise due to changes in ATP, PCr, and ADP concentrations?
How does cytoplasmic reduction of NADH affect glycolysis?
How does cytoplasmic reduction of NADH affect glycolysis?
What is the major precursor for glycolysis during exercise?
What is the major precursor for glycolysis during exercise?
At 65% of maximum effort during steady-state exercise, by how much can glycogen breakdown exceed glucose uptake?
At 65% of maximum effort during steady-state exercise, by how much can glycogen breakdown exceed glucose uptake?
What is the primary feedback control mechanism in normal healthy subjects?
What is the primary feedback control mechanism in normal healthy subjects?
What type of control is glycolysis under during exercise due to glycogen breakdown acceleration?
What type of control is glycolysis under during exercise due to glycogen breakdown acceleration?
Which factor is not a feed-forward control for stimulating glycolysis?
Which factor is not a feed-forward control for stimulating glycolysis?
What happens to the glycolytic rate in muscle during exercise?
What happens to the glycolytic rate in muscle during exercise?
Which enzyme is a dominant factor in the regulation of glycolysis?
Which enzyme is a dominant factor in the regulation of glycolysis?
Which form of PFK predominates in muscle and is considered rate-limiting during rapid glycolysis?
Which form of PFK predominates in muscle and is considered rate-limiting during rapid glycolysis?
During exercise, what immediate changes in PFK modulators occur?
During exercise, what immediate changes in PFK modulators occur?
What is the main difference in ATP usage between breaking down glucose and breaking down glycogen for energy?
What is the main difference in ATP usage between breaking down glucose and breaking down glycogen for energy?
Which enzyme is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis that helps control the speed of the process?
Which enzyme is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis that helps control the speed of the process?
What is the net gain of ATP molecules when glucose is used for energy production through glycolysis?
What is the net gain of ATP molecules when glucose is used for energy production through glycolysis?
During glycolysis, which molecule serves as the ultimate end product?
During glycolysis, which molecule serves as the ultimate end product?
What happens to the net gain of ATP molecules when glycogen is utilized for energy production compared to glucose?
What happens to the net gain of ATP molecules when glycogen is utilized for energy production compared to glucose?
What is the end result of the excess hydrogen ions combining with pyruvate during strenuous exercise?
What is the end result of the excess hydrogen ions combining with pyruvate during strenuous exercise?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of lactic acid from pyruvate?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of lactic acid from pyruvate?
In which organ does the Cori Cycle primarily take place?
In which organ does the Cori Cycle primarily take place?
Which pathway is the primary metabolic pathway for events lasting from 1-3 minutes?
Which pathway is the primary metabolic pathway for events lasting from 1-3 minutes?
Which kind of mechanism predominantly accomplishes the fine-tuning of energy supply to demand in glycolysis?
Which kind of mechanism predominantly accomplishes the fine-tuning of energy supply to demand in glycolysis?
What triggers the movement of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane in muscle fibers during exercise?
What triggers the movement of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane in muscle fibers during exercise?
Which molecule inhibits phosphofructokinase (PFK) in resting muscles?
Which molecule inhibits phosphofructokinase (PFK) in resting muscles?
What enhances the inhibition of PFK by ATP in skeletal muscles?
What enhances the inhibition of PFK by ATP in skeletal muscles?
Which factor relieves the inhibition of PFK by ATP in active muscles?
Which factor relieves the inhibition of PFK by ATP in active muscles?
What is the impact of an acidic pH on phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity?
What is the impact of an acidic pH on phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity?
In resting muscles, which condition leads to the relative inactivity of phosphofructokinase (PFK)?
In resting muscles, which condition leads to the relative inactivity of phosphofructokinase (PFK)?
During exercise, what leads to the activation of phosphofructokinase (PFK) in muscle cells?
During exercise, what leads to the activation of phosphofructokinase (PFK) in muscle cells?
What substance binds to PFK and enhances its inhibition by ATP in skeletal muscles?
What substance binds to PFK and enhances its inhibition by ATP in skeletal muscles?
What is the impact of increased AMP levels on PFK activity during muscle activity?
What is the impact of increased AMP levels on PFK activity during muscle activity?
What causes the inhibition of PFK during exercise?
What causes the inhibition of PFK during exercise?
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Study Notes
Krebs Cycle and ATP Production
- The primary function of the Krebs cycle is to generate electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) for the electron transport chain.
- The Krebs cycle produces 1 ATP molecule directly per cycle from each acetyl CoA.
- Total ATP yield from one glucose molecule through all pathways (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain) can reach up to 30-32 ATP.
Electron Transport Chain
- Electrons and hydrogen ions from NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain, where they are transferred through protein complexes.
- The end product of the electron transport chain is water, formed when electrons reduce oxygen.
Anaerobic and Immediate Energy Sources
- Anaerobic metabolism breaks down ATP without oxygen, resulting in lactic acid production in muscles.
- Phosphocreatine (PCr) serves as an immediate energy source for muscle cells during high energy demand.
ATP Regeneration and Anabolism
- The process of reforming ATP from ADP is called phosphorylation.
- Anabolism is crucial for biosynthesis, helping build larger macromolecules from smaller units.
Cellular Metabolism and Fuel Sources
- Carbohydrates, particularly glucose, serve as the primary macromolecule broken down for the Krebs cycle.
- In the citric acid cycle, acetyl groups from acetyl CoA are oxidized for energy extraction, and released electrons are transferred to NAD+ and FAD.
NAD and FAD Functionality
- NADH is the reduced form of NAD; likewise, FADH2 represents the reduced form of FAD.
- Both NAD and FAD function as coenzymes, facilitating redox reactions within the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain.
Energy Extraction and Intermediary Metabolism
- The primary function of oxidative phosphorylation is to couple electron transport to ATP production.
- Enzyme LDH catalyzes the formation of lactic acid from pyruvic acid, which occurs under anaerobic conditions.
Glycolysis Dynamics
- Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) influences glycolysis indirectly by consuming pyruvate when mitochondrial activity is high.
- When glycolysis is slow, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) competes with mitochondria for pyruvate.
pH and Glycolytic Regulation
- Low pH inhibits phosphofructokinase (PFK), causing a decrease in the glycolytic rate in resting muscles.
- Increased AMP levels activate PFK, promoting glycolysis during muscle activity, whereas elevated ATP enhances PFK inhibition.
Cori Cycle and Metabolic Pathways
- The Cori cycle occurs primarily in the liver, converting lactate back to glucose.
- Glycolysis operates effectively for 1-3 minute events, mainly powered by anaerobic metabolism.
Glycogen vs. Glucose Utilization
- Glycogen breakdown during exercise can exceed glucose uptake, enhancing ATP yield.
- Glycogen usage yields a higher net gain of ATP compared to glucose due to fewer energy-invested steps in glycolysis.
Exercise and PFK Activity
- Increased acidity during exercise leads to a decrease in PFK activity, while factors like increased ADP or AMP levels help to overcome ATP's inhibitory effects on PFK.
- GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane during exercise is triggered by insulin and muscle contractions.
Summary of Enzyme Regulation
- The rate-limiting step in glycolysis is controlled primarily by PFK, which is influenced by substrates, products, and pH levels.
- Changes in PFK activity during exercise are modulated by various intracellular conditions, including AMP, ATP, and pH.
Lactic Acid Formation
- Excess hydrogen ions combine with pyruvate to form lactic acid during strenuous exercise, leading to muscle fatigue.
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