Microbiology
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT one of Koch’s Postulates?

  • The organism must cause disease when introduced to a healthy host
  • The organism must be easily identifiable under a microscope (correct)
  • The organism must be isolated and grown in pure culture
  • The organism must be present in every case of the disease

    • What is described as a crucial step in confirming a microbial infection according to Koch's Postulates?

  • Determining antibiotic resistance profile
  • Isolating the pathogen from wastewater
  • Observing symptoms in an untreated population
  • Recovering the organism from an infected individual (correct)

    • In the context of Koch's Postulates, which statement best describes the relationship between the host and the pathogen?

  • A pathogen must be capable of causing disease in a healthy host (correct)
  • Infection occurs exclusively through direct contact with contaminated surfaces
  • Healthy hosts only transmit diseases through vectors
  • All pathogens naturally exist in healthy organisms without causing harm

    • Which of the following methods could challenge the second postulate regarding the isolation of pathogens?

    <p>Culturing bacteria that are not easily grown outside of the host</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of pathogen transmission is emphasized in Koch's Postulates?

    <p>Pathogens must be recoverable after causing disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process describes how an organism spreads within a population?

    <p>Transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step for a microorganism in causing an infection?

    <p>Gaining access to the host</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a primary reason for identifying the organism causing a disease?

    <p>To develop appropriate treatment strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method involves removing or killing pathogens after an infection?

    <p>Antibiotic therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In host-pathogen interactions, which factor is crucial for the pathogen to successfully establish an infection?

    <p>Pathogen virulence factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one significant finding from Koch's research on anthrax?

    <p>Bacillus anthracis can be found in domestic animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one common mode of pathogen transmission?

    <p>Respiratory droplets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method did Koch use to demonstrate that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax?

    <p>He injected healthy animals with pure cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the key aspects of infectious disease discussed?

    <p>How the organism spreads within a population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique is often used for identifying specific microorganisms in a laboratory?

    <p>PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the ability of a microorganism to cause disease primarily depend on?

    <p>Host immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a critical step in eliminating an organism after an infection?

    <p>Using antibiotics or disinfectants effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Koch confirm the presence of bacterial cells in infected blood?

    <p>By using a microscope.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of host-pathogen interaction, which statement is accurate?

    <p>Pathogens must gain access to the host to cause disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following refers to how a microorganism spreads throughout a population?

    <p>Infectious disease transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bacteria is Bacillus anthracis classified as?

    <p>Gram-positive and rod-shaped.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant characteristic of spore-forming bacteria like Bacillus anthracis?

    <p>They can remain dormant for long periods in adverse conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of genes are primarily found on bacterial plasmids?

    <p>Luxury genes, including those for antibiotic resistance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Bacillus anthracis commonly infect animals after spore germination?

    <p>By producing toxins that cause severe illnesses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happened to Gruinard Island after the anthrax testing in 1942?

    <p>It was treated with formaldehyde and later declared fit for habitation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do bacteria typically lack introns in their genetic structure?

    <p>Bacteria do not undergo splicing processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method by which bacteria can acquire new genetic material?

    <p>Transformation, conjugation, and transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of organisms can survive in soil for extended periods of time due to their sporulating ability?

    <p>Both pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bacterial genomes typically compare to those of eukaryotes?

    <p>Bacterial genomes are smaller and more streamlined.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the immediate effect of the anthrax testing conducted on Gruinard Island in 1942?

    <p>Sheep began to die after three days of testing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the ability of bacteria to respond quickly to environmental changes primarily involve?

    <p>Changes in gene expression levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do plasmids play in bacterial conjugation?

    <p>They are involved in the transfer of genetic material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes bacteriophages?

    <p>They specifically target and kill bacterial cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process allows for the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via a bacteriophage?

    <p>Transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a therapeutic application of bacteriophages?

    <p>Treatment of bacterial infections like dysentery.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of Gram-negative bacteria?

    <p>Presence of an outer membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is unique to endospores?

    <p>High resistance to environmental stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of bacterial identification is crucial to effective treatment?

    <p>Identifying the causative pathogen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT typically considered when selecting growth media for bacterial cultures?

    <p>Cost of media ingredients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of media helps to differentiate between different types of bacteria?

    <p>Differential media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterium is associated with endospore formation?

    <p>Clostridium tetani</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organism is NOT listed among the notifiable diseases?

    <p>Staphylococcus aureus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method is commonly used for the microscopic identification of bacteria?

    <p>Microscopic morphology assessment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Gram stain in diagnostic microbiology?

    <p>To classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic feature of Bacteriophage therapy?

    <p>It exploits the natural ability of viruses to kill bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of bacteria that distinguishes them from eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Being prokaryotic organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following bacteria is commonly associated with hospital-acquired infections?

    <p>Klebsiella pneumoniae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic differentiates non-lactose fermenting bacteria on Salmonella-Shigella agar?

    <p>Production of hydrogen sulfide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What color change indicates lactose fermentation in Klebsiella pneumoniae and Citrobacter freundii on agar plates?

    <p>From yellow to red</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property do Gram-negative bacteria generally exhibit compared to Gram-positive bacteria?

    <p>Presence of an outer membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which species of bacteria is known for causing typhoid fever?

    <p>Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Typhi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the color of neutral red in agar when a non-lactose fermenting bacterium grows?

    <p>It turns from red to yellow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a true statement about the nature of bacterial chromosomes?

    <p>Most bacteria have a single chromosome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the acute symptoms of toxoplasmosis?

    <p>Blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the transmission method of leishmaniasis?

    <p>Bites from infected female sand flies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What treatment is typically used for visceral leishmaniasis?

    <p>Sodium stibogluconate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many people does malaria infect each year approximately?

    <p>200 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of infection by the malaria parasite in humans?

    <p>Bite by infected Anopheles mosquito</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following symptoms is associated with malaria?

    <p>Periodic fevers every 48-72 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main protozoa responsible for causing malaria?

    <p>Plasmodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT a known preventative measure against malaria?

    <p>Consumption of herbal remedies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is commonly used for prophylactic treatment against malaria?

    <p>Mefloquine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reported behavioral change associated with toxoplasmosis?

    <p>Increased risk-taking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the appearance of filamentous fungi?

    <p>They typically have a 'hairy' appearance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major component of the fungal cell wall that distinguishes it from mammalian cells?

    <p>Chitin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fungal infection affects the surface layer of skin, nails, or hair?

    <p>Tinea (ringworm)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of protozoa causes malaria?

    <p>Plasmodium falciparum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure formed by the branched formation of hyphae in filamentous fungi called?

    <p>Mycelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an antifungal target that distinguishes fungi from mammals?

    <p>Ergosterol in the cell membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of replication can protozoa utilize?

    <p>Both sexual and asexual replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the severity of protozoan infections?

    <p>Severity can vary based on the route of infection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the generic term for fungal infections?

    <p>Mycosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the cell membrane composition of fungi from mammals?

    <p>Presence of ergosterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of reproduction is common in filamentous fungi?

    <p>Both sexual and asexual reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of fungal infections are most likely to be unpleasant but seldom fatal?

    <p>Superficial infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a class of protozoa?

    <p>Myceliates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of Trichomonas vaginalis infections in females?

    <p>Infection generally occurs in the cervical area of the vagina or the urethra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organism is responsible for causing Cryptosporidiosis?

    <p>Cryptosporidium parvum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common route of transmission for Giardia lamblia?

    <p>Contaminated food and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which symptom is commonly associated with infections caused by Entamoeba histolytica?

    <p>Amoebic dysentery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significance does Metronidazole hold in treating certain infections?

    <p>It is a general inhibitor of DNA replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main source of infection for Toxoplasma gondii?

    <p>Contaminated meat or cat feces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common symptom of Trichomoniasis?

    <p>Unpleasant 'fishy' smell in discharge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is often seen in infections caused by Cryptosporidium parvum?

    <p>Severe diarrhea lasting 2-7 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what part of the body does Giardia lamblia primarily attach during infection?

    <p>Duodenal wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable property of Trichomonas vaginalis in terms of symptom presentation?

    <p>Many males often remain asymptomatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Entamoeba histolytica cause damage within the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>By disrupting the mucosal structure, leading to ulceration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated annual number of Trichomonas vaginalis cases globally?

    <p>About 160 million cases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a primary vector for T.brucei gambiense?

    <p>Tsetse fly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of the widespread resistance to oseltamivir in treating influenza?

    <p>Greater reliance on non-antiviral treatments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between antigenic drift and antigenic shift in influenza viruses?

    <p>Drift occurs in one viral strain, while shift involves multiple strains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What level of vaccine uptake is generally considered necessary for effective herd immunity?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary factor that complicates vaccination efforts for influenza?

    <p>The genetic fluidity of the virus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true regarding the availability of vaccines and antiviral treatments for viral diseases listed?

    <p>HIV has no vaccine but has antiviral treatments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complicates the vaccination program for specific populations, such as the elderly?

    <p>Lower immune response in older individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main problem related to the uptake of vaccinations in the context of outbreaks?

    <p>A critical percentage of the population opting out of vaccination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does geographical isolation function as a control measure for infections?

    <p>Its effectiveness highly relies on enforcement capabilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical fatality rate for Ebola virus infections?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which country had the highest number of Ebola cases during the 2014 outbreak?

    <p>Liberia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What action was taken when the girl in Bombali showed symptoms of Ebola?

    <p>She was isolated in an Ebola treatment centre.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant reason for the spread of Ebola in Sierra Leone?

    <p>Lack of adherence to imposed restrictions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do animal reservoirs play in the transmission of the Ebola virus?

    <p>They act as carriers that infect humans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the first reported EVD-free week in Guinea during the 2014 outbreak?

    <p>15th September 2015</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many deaths were reported in Liberia during the 2014 Ebola outbreak?

    <p>4805</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which outbreak did new cases of Ebola continue to occur regularly?

    <p>2014 outbreak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the link among the majority of cases in Sierra Leone during the outbreak?

    <p>Previous contact with affected individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an effective response action taken to control the spread of Ebola?

    <p>Immediate isolation of infected individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way to prevent Zika virus disease (ZVD)?

    <p>Avoiding mosquito bites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following symptoms is typically associated with Zika virus disease?

    <p>Mild fever and rash</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of virus are coronaviruses classified as?

    <p>RNA viruses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant characteristic of the influenza virus structure?

    <p>Spherical viral particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of transmission is primarily responsible for spreading the influenza virus?

    <p>Airborne transmission via aerosols</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the long-term concerns associated with infections from viruses like Zika?

    <p>Possibility of microcephaly in newborns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is crucial for the influenza virus to successfully infect a host?

    <p>Presence of glycoproteins for cell recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the mosquito species responsible for Zika virus transmission?

    <p>Aedes aegypti</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common long-term effect of viral infections like those caused by coronaviruses?

    <p>Development of secondary bacterial infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mechanism does the influenza virus use to release new viral particles after replication?

    <p>Utilization of neuraminidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristics are typical of the influenza viral genome?

    <p>Single stranded RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of the Zika virus on neonates if the mother is infected during pregnancy?

    <p>Potential for birth defects like microcephaly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is identified as significant in the transmission of vector-borne diseases like Zika and dengue?

    <p>Environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common treatment method for managing HCMV infections?

    <p>Ganciclovir administration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Microbiology

    • The lecture introduces the role of microorganisms in infectious disease
    • This includes how the organism spreads in a population
    • And how the organism gains access to the host
    • The lecture will cover how to identify the organism causing the disease
    • As well as how to eliminate the organism after infection
    • And how to prevent infection

    History of Medical Microbiology

    • Koch's work on anthrax
    • In the 19th century, Koch studied anthrax
    • Koch determined the disease is caused by rod-shaped gram-positive bacteria
    • Now called Bacillus anthracis
    • Naturally occurring in soil, affects domestic and wild animals
    • Koch collected blood from infected cattle
    • Identified bacterial cells using a microscope
    • Injected infected blood into healthy animals
    • Cultured bacteria from blood
    • Pure cultures of bacteria killed healthy animals
    • Proving bacteria were responsible for anthrax
    • The organism later named Bacillus anthracis
    • Koch's work was published in 1876
    • Confirmed infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms
    • Koch's postulates: criteria for classifying infectious diseases
    • Four conditions must be met
    • Have been slightly altered since, but remain relevant

    Germ Theory of Disease - Koch's Postulates

    • The organism responsible MUST be present in EVERY case
    • The organism MUST be possible to isolate the organism and grow it in a pure culture
    • The isolated organism MUST cause disease in the healthy animal
    • The organism MUST be recoverable from the diseased animal

    Types of Microbes

    • Bacteria
    • Fungi
    • Protozoa
    • Viruses
    • Algae

    Some General Properties of These Organisms

    • Bacteria
    • Prokaryotes
    • Lack organelles
    • No nucleus
    • Protozoa, fungi
    • Eukaryotes
    • contain a nucleus
    • Contain organelles (e.g., mitochondria)
    • Viruses
    • Incapable of independent life
    • Require a host for replication

    Examples of Bacteria Which Can Cause Human Diseases

    • Escherichia coli - found in the digestive tract
    • Neisseria gonorrhoeae - causes gonorrhoea
    • Clostridium tetani - causes tetanus
    • Mycobacterium tuberculosis - causes tuberculosis
    • Borrelia burgdorferi - causes Lyme disease

    Examples of Fungi Relevant to Humans

    • Trichophyton rubrum - involved in athlete's foot
    • Penicillium chrysogenum - source of penicillin
    • Aspergillus nidulans - involved in farmer's lung
    • Saccharomyces cerevisiae - brewing and baking industries

    Examples of Protozoa Associated with Diseases

    • Giardia lamblia - giardiasis (digestive tract infection)
    • Trypanosoma brucei - sleeping sickness
    • Entamoeba histolytica - amoebiasis (digestive tract infection)
    • Trichomonas vaginalis - trichomoniasis (STI)

    Examples of Viruses Associated with Diseases

    • Human Immunodeficiency Virus
    • Ebolavirus
    • Hepatitis Viruses
    • West Nile Virus
    • Corona Virus

    Examples of Algae Associated with Diseases

    • Gambierdiscus toxicus - ciguatera fish poisoning
    • Various - amnesic, paralytic, diarrheal, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
    • Raphidiopsis raciborskii - Palm Island Mystery disease
    • Alexandrium catenella - Saxitoxin (nerve agent - classed as WMD)

    Microbes in the Body

    • Internal organs are generally free of microorganisms
    • In this context digestive / urinary etc. tracts counts as outside the body
    • Surface tissues have lots of microorganisms
    • Microbiota (microbial community) - called microbiome

    Distribution of human microbiome

    • This slide shows the idea of the microbiome being found in different places
    • Some outside body, others inside
    • Also introduces the idea of different levels of diversity

    Types of microbes

    • Most species of microbe in the human biome are bacteria
    • Colonise from birth onwards
    • Population changes over time

    Types of microbes

    • Early colonisers are commensal bacteria
    • Normally mutualistic / symbiotic relationship with the host
    • Multiple factors influence early colonisers (e.g. Diet, Environmental factors, Geographic location, Use of antibiotics)
    • Access to nutrients
    • Defence mechanisms

    Microbial Adhesion and Attack

    • Healthy skin acts as a reliable barrier to most bacterial attacks
    • However, many microbes will adhere to the surface of the skin
    • Some bacteria attach to surfaces and grow (biofilms)
    • Often involves attachment of bacterial adhesins to the glycoproteins of the skin surface

    External Microbial Flora - Skin

    • However, although bacteria can colonise much of the skin, the distribution is not even
    • Certain areas have more microbes than others.
    • Also, different species in different places

    External Microbial Flora - Skin

    • Factors influencing distribution
    • Nutrients
    • Moisture
    • Temperature
    • pH
    • Skin shedding
    • Fluid osmolarity
    • Potential inhibitors

    External Microbial Flora - Skin

    • Largest numbers of bacteria tend to be found in regions with most apocrine sweat glands

    Microbiology of Skin

    • Two groups of skin-associated microbes (Resident and Transient microbes)
    • Skin in constant contact with environment allowing contact with microbes
    • Transient microbes tend to come in contact with the skin and may attach
    • Conditions are often not favourable for them so they die off
    • Resident population tends to have evolved to preserve their niche for access to nutrients

    Microbiology of Skin

    • Resident population often produce bacteriocins which may kill or help outcompete transient species.

    Transient skin microbes

    • Exposed areas of the body have higher numbers of transients
    • Typically face, neck, hands, etc.
    • Influenced by environmental, domestic and occupational factors

    Internal Microbial Flora

    • The digestive tract, respiratory tract and urogenital tract have direct contact with the outside of the body
    • They also have their own microbial community

    Oral Cavity

    • The oral cavity provides an excellent environment for microbial growth
    • Constant temperature, moist environment, ready supply of nutrients; range of surfaces for attachment
    • Due to food and drink being ingested, there is a risk that the microbes will be washed away
    • Microbes attach to surfaces and also form biofilms
    • Several different attachment sites available: Tongue, Epithelial cells, Teeth, Corners of the mouth / lips, Gums
    • Gingivitis - caused by infections of Streptococcus, Fusobacterium, Actinomyces, Veilonella, Treponema

    Nasal Cavity/Respiratory Tract

    • The nasal cavity also provides favourable conditions for microbial growth
    • Moist conditions, relatively constant temperature, nutritional sources from secretions
    • Microbes enter the nasal cavity during inhalation
    • In more distal areas of the respiratory tract this can also be true, but the mouth provides a point of contact via pharynx

    Stomach

    • The stomach contains VERY acidic conditions (pH 1.5 to 2.0)
    • However, there are still organisms in this region
    • Passed person-person or from food
    • Many probiotic microbes act in the lower gut, but must survive acidic conditions of the stomach
    • Some species preferably live in this environment (such as Helicobacter pylori) - major source of gastric ulcers
    • Once in the stomach, Helicobacter pylori can colonise mucosal surfaces
    • Once attached, Helicobacter pylori can cause inflammation and ulceration

    Small Intestine

    • The microbial community in the small intestine changes due to several variables (Age, Diet, Geographical distribution, Antibiotic exposure, Health, pH)
    • The numbers of microbes in the figure are expressed in terms of numbers per gram of digesta.
    • The genera of organisms include Enterococcus, Bacteroides and Lactobacillus

    Large Intestine

    • The hindgut contains numerous species – very diverse
    • many are obligate anaerobes (oxygen is toxic to them)
    • pH in this area is relatively neutral (4 to 7)
    • The relationship is generally symbiotic (human supplies nutrients, bacteria help to break food down, vitamins)
    • Microbial numbers and composition change with age
    • Links to increased predisposition to diarrhoea in the elderly
    • Diet can impact on the composition and distribution of the microbial community
    • Differences in those eating red meat versus those eating white meat
    • Different probiotics exist, sold to enhance digestive efficiency

    Rectum

    • The rectal bacterial population is very dense due to water being reabsorbed
    • Bacterial population produces several metabolites (Hydrogen sulphide, Methane, Hydrogen, Volatile fatty acids (VFAs))

    Clostridium Difficile Infection

    • C. difficile contains endospores that can survive stomach acidity and reach the large intestine
    • Normal gut flora is altered by broad-spectrum antibiotics
    • C. difficile flourishes within the colon
    • Toxins A & B cause mucosal damage
    • Most common infectious cause of nosocomial diarrhoea

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    Related Documents

    Lecture 2.1 - Introduction to Microbiology PDF
    Lecture 2.2 - Bacteriology PDF
    Lecture 2.3 - Eukaryotic Microbes PDF
    Lecture 2.4 - Virology and Viral Infections PDF

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