Key Concepts in Physics

Gravitational Force: Attraction between masses; governs the motion of planets and objects.
Electromagnetic Force: Interactions between charged particles; responsible for electricity, magnetism, and light.
Strong Nuclear Force: Holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
Weak Nuclear Force: Responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino interactions.

Displacement: Change in position; vector quantity.
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement; vector quantity.
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity; vector quantity.
Equations of Motion (for constant acceleration):
1. ( v = u + at )
2. ( s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2 )
3. ( v^2 = u^2 + 2as )

Linear Momentum: ( p = mv ); product of mass and velocity.
Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum before an interaction equals total momentum after.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed (ΔU = Q - W).
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated system always increases.
Heat Transfer: Conduction, convection, and radiation.

Wave Properties: Wavelength, frequency, amplitude, speed.
Types of Waves:
- Transverse: Particles move perpendicular to wave direction (e.g., light).
- Longitudinal: Particles move parallel to wave direction (e.g., sound).
Sound Waves: Mechanical waves that require a medium; travel faster in solids than in gases.

Ohm’s Law: ( V = IR ); relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).
Electric Field: Region around a charged object where other charges experience a force.
Magnetic Field: Region around a magnet where magnetic forces are observed.
Faraday's Law of Induction: A changing magnetic field induces an electric current.

Quantum Mechanics: Study of particles at atomic and subatomic levels; introduces concepts like wave-particle duality and uncertainty principle.
Relativity:
- Special Relativity: Time and space are relative; ( E = mc^2 ).
- General Relativity: Describes gravity as curvature of spacetime.

Big Bang Theory: Origin of the universe from a singularity; expansion over time.
Black Holes: Regions of spacetime with gravitational pull so strong that nothing can escape.

These notes encapsulate foundational concepts and principles of physics, providing a concise overview for study and review.

Gravitational Force: Attracts masses; crucial for celestial motion and maintaining orbits.
Electromagnetic Force: Interactions among charged particles; underpins phenomena like electricity, magnetism, and light.
Strong Nuclear Force: Binds protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei; responsible for nuclear stability.
Weak Nuclear Force: Plays a key role in radioactive decay processes and interactions involving neutrinos.

Displacement: Vector that represents the change in position between two points.
Velocity: Vector quantity indicating the rate of displacement change, including direction.
Acceleration: Measures the rate of change in velocity; also a vector quantity.
Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration:
- ( v = u + at ): Relates final velocity (v), initial velocity (u), acceleration (a), and time (t).
- ( s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2 ): Describes displacement (s) during acceleration.
- ( v^2 = u^2 + 2as ): Connects velocity, acceleration, and displacement.

Work: Calculated as ( W = Fd \cos(\theta) ); performed when force displaces an object.
Kinetic Energy: Given by ( KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 ); energy that depends on mass (m) and velocity (v).
Potential Energy: ( PE = mgh ); energy related to an object's position in a gravitational field.
Conservation of Energy: Principle stating that energy in a closed system is conserved over time.

Linear Momentum: Expressed as ( p = mv ); product of an object's mass and its velocity.
Conservation of Momentum: The total momentum before an event equals the total after, applicable in collisions.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy conservation principle denoted by ΔU = Q - W, linking internal energy (U), heat (Q), and work (W).
Second Law of Thermodynamics: In isolated systems, entropy tends to increase, indicating irreversibility in natural processes.
Heat Transfer Modes: Includes conduction (direct contact), convection (fluid movement), and radiation (energy transfer via electromagnetic waves).

Wave Properties: Characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed define wave behavior.
Types of Waves:
- Transverse Waves: Particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave travel (e.g., electromagnetic radiation).
- Longitudinal Waves: Particle movement is parallel to the wave direction (e.g., sound).
Sound Waves: Mechanical waves that propagate through media; travel more rapidly in solids than in gases due to closer particle proximity.

Ohm’s Law: Defined as ( V = IR ), relates voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).
Electric Field: Exists in the vicinity of a charged object, influencing other charges.
Magnetic Field: Exists around magnets; influences magnetic materials and moving charges.
Faraday's Law of Induction: Changing magnetic fields result in induced electric currents.

Quantum Mechanics: Concerned with atomic and subatomic particle behavior; incorporates wave-particle duality and the uncertainty principle.
Relativity:
- Special Relativity: States time and space perception depends on the observer's motion; encapsulated in ( E = mc^2 ).
- General Relativity: The theory that explains gravity as a curvature of spacetime due to mass presence.

Big Bang Theory: Describes the universe's origin from a singular state; subsequent expansive evolution.
Black Holes: Gravitational regions so dense that not even light can escape; resulting from significant mass concentration.