Key Concepts in Chemistry

1. Matter and its Properties

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
States of Matter:
- Solid: Definite shape and volume.
- Liquid: Definite volume, indefinite shape.
- Gas: Indefinite shape and volume.
Properties:
- Physical: Can be observed without changing the substance (e.g., color, melting point).
- Chemical: Describes a substance's ability to undergo a change (e.g., reactivity).

2. Atomic Structure

Atom: Basic unit of matter; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Nucleus: Center of the atom; contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral).
Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.
Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom; determines the element.

3. Periodic Table

Organized by increasing atomic number.
Groups: Vertical columns; elements have similar chemical properties.
Periods: Horizontal rows; properties change progressively across a period.

4. Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds: Formed between metal and non-metal; involves transfer of electrons.
Covalent Bonds: Formed between non-metals; involves sharing of electrons.
Metallic Bonds: Formed between metals; involves a sea of delocalized electrons.

5. Chemical Reactions

Reactants: Substances that undergo chemical changes.
Products: Substances formed as a result of the reaction.
Types of Reactions:
- Synthesis: A + B → AB
- Decomposition: AB → A + B
- Single Replacement: A + BC → AC + B
- Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
- Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

6. Stoichiometry

The calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
Mole: A quantity of substance containing 6.022 x 10²³ entities (Avogadro's number).

7. Acids and Bases

Acids: Substances that donate protons (H⁺) in solutions; taste sour, turn litmus red.
Bases: Substances that accept protons; taste bitter, turn litmus blue.
pH scale: Measures acidity or basicity; scale from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

8. Solutions and Solubility

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of solute (substance dissolved) and solvent (substance doing the dissolving).
Concentration: Amount of solute in a given volume of solution.
Solubility: Maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature.

9. Thermochemistry

Study of heat changes in chemical reactions.
Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (e.g., combustion).
Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (e.g., photosynthesis).

10. Kinetics and Equilibrium

Kinetics: Study of reaction rates and the factors affecting them.
Equilibrium: State where the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.

11. Organic Chemistry

Study of carbon-containing compounds.
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that dictate their chemical properties (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl).

12. Inorganic Chemistry

Study of inorganic compounds; includes minerals and metals.
Coordination Compounds: Composed of a central metal atom bonded to surrounding ligands.

These notes cover foundational concepts in chemistry, essential for understanding the interactions and behaviors of various substances.

Matter and its Properties

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Three states of matter:
- Solid: Definite shape and volume
- Liquid: Definite volume, indefinite shape.
- Gas: Indefinite shape and volume.
Physical properties can be observed without changing the substance. Examples include color, melting point, boiling point, density, and state of matter.
Chemical properties describe a substance's ability to undergo a chemical change. Examples include reactivity, flammability, and oxidation.

Atomic Structure

Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
An atom is composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The nucleus, located at the center of an atom, contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge).
Electrons (negative charge) orbit the nucleus.
The atomic number defines an element and is equal to the number of protons in the atom's nucleus.

Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements in increasing atomic number.
Groups (vertical columns) contain elements with similar chemical properties.
Periods (horizontal rows) show a progressive change in properties.

Chemical Bonds

Ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals, involving the transfer of electrons.
Covalent bonds form between non-metals, involving the sharing of electrons.
Metallic bonds form between metals, involving a "sea" of delocalized electrons.

Chemical Reactions

Reactants are substances undergoing chemical changes.
Products are the new substances formed.
There are five main types of chemical reactions:
- Synthesis: Two or more reactants combine to form a single product (A + B → AB).
- Decomposition: A single reactant breaks down into two or more products (AB → A + B).
- Single Replacement: One element replaces another in a compound (A + BC → AC + B).
- Double Replacement: Two reactants exchange partners (AB + CD → AD + CB).
- Combustion: A substance reacts rapidly with oxygen, usually releasing heat and light (hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O).

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.
A mole represents a specific quantity of substance containing Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10²³) of entities.

Acids and Bases

Acids donate protons (H⁺) in solutions. They are typically sour-tasting and turn litmus paper red.
Bases accept protons. They usually have a bitter taste and turn litmus paper blue.
The pH scale measures acidity or basicity, ranging from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic).

Solutions and Solubility

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute (dissolved substance) and a solvent (dissolving substance).
Concentration refers to the amount of solute present in a given volume of solution.
Solubility describes the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature.

Thermochemistry

Thermochemistry focuses on heat changes during chemical reactions.
Exothermic reactions release heat to the surroundings.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat from the surroundings.

Kinetics and Equilibrium

Kinetics studies the rates of chemical reactions and the factors influencing them.
Equilibrium is a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.

### Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon-containing compounds.
Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within organic molecules influencing their chemical properties. Examples include hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), and amino (-NH₂).

Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry studies the properties of inorganic compounds, including minerals and metals.
Coordination compounds contain a central metal atom bonded to surrounding ligands.