Kant's Perpetual Peace and 18th Century Britain

The King's address to the Estates General, highlighting his desire to be a 'friend of the people' and outlining the purpose of the gathering.

The financial state of France at the start of the French Revolution, marked by a significant shortfall in government funds.

The dissatisfaction of the Commoners with the proposed solutions to the economic crisis, leading to a shift towards self-determination and action.

The bold and unprecedented act of a bishop praising the people, challenging the norms of religious authority and reflecting changing societal attitudes.

A significant period of change and upheaval in France marked by the dissatisfaction of the people and their growing demand for reform.

A talented lawyer and businessman who became the Controller-General of Finances in 1783. He aimed to modernize and centralize French financial administration and initiated sweeping reforms.

An assembly of representatives from the First and Second Estates convened by Calonne in 1786 to address France's financial crisis. Its purpose was to secure support for a new land tax and other reforms. Their refusal led to Necker's reinstatement and the calling of the Estates-General.

The First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) were privileged groups exempt from most taxes. In contrast, the Third Estate comprised the bourgeoisie and peasantry, bearing the burden of taxation.

The Estates-General was a legislative body, rarely convened in French history. It was comprised of representatives from the three Estates. The Estates-General was called in 1789 to address the financial crisis and propose solutions, ultimately leading to the French Revolution.

The third estate, comprising the educated middle class and the peasantry, argued that their work was essential to the nation's prosperity. They believed they should have greater representation based on their contributions to society.

A society in which everyone has the freedom to pursue their goals without infringing on the freedom of others. This freedom is achievable through a government that respects individual rights and fosters a just society.

A political system where the government is based on law and the rule of law respects individual rights and property. Power is separated into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

The ability to choose freely and independently, without being influenced by external forces or coercion.

An individual who is guided by moral principles and makes political decisions that promote peace and justice, upholding the rights and freedoms of others.

A system of governance in which the government's power rests in the hands of a single individual or family, often passed down through inheritance.

The position of the Prime Minister, the head of government in the United Kingdom, emerged under the Hanoverian monarchs. This role was initially established as a means of managing legislative affairs in the House of Commons.

George I, the first Hanoverian king, was not fluent in English. He preferred having someone manage the complex parliamentary processes, leading to the establishment of a prominent Prime Minister.

Robert Walpole held the position of Prime Minister (though not officially titled) from 1721 to 1742 during the Hanoverian period. This marked a significant development in the consolidation of the Prime Minister's position as head of government.

George III was the first British monarch to truly identify as British and was well-liked by his people, despite not being seen as a tyrant.

William Pitt the Younger, a prominent figure during George III's reign, solidified the role of Prime Minister, even though Robert Walpole first held the position.

George Frideric Handel, a renowned Baroque composer, established himself as a celebrated figure in English music despite his German origins.

Handel's Water Music was performed for King George I during a royal barge procession on the River Thames, solidifying his position as a favorite of the court.

Handel was known as a successful entrepreneur and impresario, establishing opera houses in London and introducing the oratorio, a form of unstaged opera typically performed during Lent.

Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, focused on strengthening her control over the Habsburg lands after losing Silesia to Prussia.

Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, reorganized imperial administration, revamped the tax system, and allowed the Catholic Church to maintain its vast influence.

Emperor Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son, sought to modernize Austria by introducing rationalization and secular reforms.

Joseph II aimed to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church by closing monasteries that did not provide tangible social contributions like running hospitals or schools.

Joseph II promoted religious tolerance and implemented reforms affecting Jewish worship, education, and economic possibilities.

Joseph II modernized the Austrian bureaucracy by unifying various offices and transitioning from Latin to German as the official language.

France, at the start of the 18th century, was considered the strongest and most admired nation, its culture widely copied across Europe.

Under Louis XIV, France established an absolute monarchy by curtailing the aristocracy's political power, leaving them with social standing but limited influence.

Louis XV, Louis XIV's great-grandson, attempted to modernize France's antiquated tax system but was unable to secure the necessary political support.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) marked a turning point for France, resulting in significant territorial losses and a decline in colonial trade.

Louis XVI, who reigned from 1774 to 1793, faced significant challenges during his reign, including a rapidly deteriorating economy.

A French musical composer known for his stunning interludes in operas, prominent during the 1740s and 1750s.

An artistic style characterized by lightheartedness, frivolity, and ornate decorations, prevalent in 18th-century France.

The practice of selling the right to collect taxes to private individuals, prevalent in pre-modern Europe. Tax farmers profited by collecting more taxes than they were obligated to pay to the government.

A financial crisis in France triggered by John Law's investment scheme involving the Mississippi Company. The scheme initially created many millionaires but later resulted in widespread financial losses and public disillusionment.

A Scottish financier who served as France's Controller General during the early 18th century. Known for his ambitious economic reforms, notably the introduction of paper money and a national bank, he also caused a major financial crisis with the Mississippi Bubble.

A tax implemented in France in 1749, levied on all individuals regardless of social status, replacing the 1/10 tithe. It aimed to address the French government's financial difficulties.

A French finance minister who proposed the Vingtième tax in 1749, trying to address the financial crisis caused by the War of Austrian Succession. This tax met with resistance from various groups.

A French economist and Controller-General under King Louis XVI. He introduced six edicts aimed at reforming the French economic and social systems. His reforms included abolishing forced labor and guild regulations.

Forced labor imposed by feudal lords on peasants in pre-modern Europe, often used to work on the lord's land or for public works. Turgot's edict aimed to abolish these forced labor obligations.

Exclusive rights granted to members of a guild, often in medieval and early modern Europe, controlling the production of specific goods or services within a community.

A report published in 1781 by Jacques Necker, France's finance minister at the time. The report aimed to demonstrate transparency in royal finances by highlighting a purported budget surplus.

A Swiss-born finance minister of France who published the Compte rendu au Roi in 1781. He aimed to promote financial transparency and implement reforms to address the kingdom's mounting debts.

A situation in which the amount of government expenditure exceeds its revenue, resulting in a financial deficit. Necker's report claimed a surplus when, in reality, there was a significant deficit.

The system of government where the monarchy holds supreme power and authority. The Ancien Regime in France was the period before the French Revolution, characterized by a monarchical system.