Key Concepts

Immanuel Kant (from "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals")

• Deontology focuses on the intention behind an action, not its consequences
• The Good Will is the only thing that is good without qualification
• A good will acts according to moral duty, rather than aiming to achieve happiness
• Duty involves acting out of reverence for universal moral law
• Duty is determined by the rational application of the categorical imperative
• A maxim is a principle of action, a rule followed when making a moral decision
• A maxim must be universalizable to be morally sound
• Practical Reason determines the will through the application of moral principles, helping to discern duties
• Autonomy is the quality of a will that is self-regulating, free from external influences, and able to act according to rational moral laws
• The Categorical Imperative is a foundational concept, dictating actions should only be based on maxims that could become universal laws
• The Formula of Universal Law requires actions to be universalizable
• The Formula of the End in Itself states that humanity should always be treated as an end, never merely as a means

Aristotle (from "The Ethics")

• Ethics and Politics are closely linked, with politics as the practical application of ethical principles on a broader scale
• Virtue Ethics emphasizes virtues or moral character, rather than duties/rules or consequences of actions
• Eudaimonia, often translated as 'flourishing' or 'happiness', is the highest human good
• Teleology studies purposes or goals in natural processes and states human actions aim at some end reflecting some value
• Happiness/the good life (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal, achieved through virtue and rational activity
• Teleology (telos) refers to the end, purpose, or goal of something; in ethics, it refers to the aim we consider good
• Phronesis is practical wisdom, the ability to make the right decision at the right time
• Virtue is the Mean between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency, relative to the individual and their circumstances
• Specific Virtues include courage, generosity, temperance, pride, and honesty, each balancing between extremes

Virginia Held (Ethics of Care)

• Ethics of Care emphasizes interpersonal relationships and care/benevolence as a virtue
• Care as a practice involves responding to needs, building trust and connectedness
• Care as a value involves valuing caring persons and attitudes, organizing evaluations of relationships around moral considerations
• Relational Ethics values interpersonal relationships and the roles of emotions/empathy in moral reasoning
• Interconnectedness highlights the interdependent nature of human relationships
• Caring Relationships, characterized by personal attachment and responsibility, should be the foundation of ethical consideration

Ruth Benedict (Cultural Relativism)

• Cultural Relativism states that different cultures have different moral codes, and there is no universal truth in morality
• Morality is defined as the set of practices that conform to the normative expectations of a society
• Societal Norms are the accepted behaviors and beliefs established by a society, which serve as the basis for what is morally good

James Rachels (Cultural Relativism)

• Ethical Skepticism doubts the possibility of absolute moral truth, questioning the objectivity of moral principles
• Rachels argues for the possibility of objective standards in ethics, asserting some moral truths can be universally valid
• Cultural Diversity refers to the variety of moral systems across different cultures, which discusses the potential for universal ethics

John Stuart Mill (Utilitarianism)

• Utilitarianism theorizes that the best action maximizes utility, defined as the greatest well-being for the greatest number of people
• Consequentialism judges the morality of an action solely by its consequences
• Higher and Lower Pleasures distinguishes between more refined, intellectual pleasures (higher) and simpler, bodily pleasures (lower), promoting the former as more valuable
• Happiness is the ultimate end and the measure of what is morally right, defined as pleasure and the absence of pain
• Pleasure is seen as the primary component of happiness