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Questions and Answers

What does behaviorism primarily focus on as the cause of behavior?

  • Environmental factors (correct)
  • Emotional states
  • Conscious and unconscious thoughts
  • Introspective reports

Which concept is primarily associated with Pavlov's work in behaviorism?

  • Operant conditioning
  • Cognitive dissonance
  • Insight learning
  • Classical conditioning (correct)

In the stimulus-response (S-R) model proposed by Watson, what does the 'S' represent?

  • A learned behavior
  • A response triggered by a stimulus
  • A conscious thought
  • A specific environmental change (correct)

What is the main goal of behavioral analysis as described in behaviorism?

<p>To alter behavior through environmental changes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does learned helplessness refer to in the context of behaviorism?

<p>The perception that outcomes are random, leading to anxiety (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of habituation as described in behaviorism?

<p>The decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a goal of behaviorism?

<p>To understand the conscious mind's influence on actions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the relationship between a stimulus and a response in behaviorism?

<p>Causal connection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key concept of behaviourism regarding stimuli and responses?

<p>Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the learning-based approach, what defines learning?

<p>A change in behavior due to experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes personality according to Allport's definition?

<p>Personality creates consistent patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the trait theory of personality?

<p>It posits that individuals have stable traits embedded within them. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Law of Effect proposed by L. Thorndike describe?

<p>Consequences are important in learning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a goal of scientific psychology?

<p>Creation of untestable theories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Thorndike's conclusions, what type of learning is primarily characterized?

<p>Incremental learning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of classical conditioning?

<p>Reflexive and automatic behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model examines only observable behaviors and does not deny internal states?

<p>Pragmatic/Scientific model. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

B.F. Skinner believed the effectiveness of positive reinforcement is determined by what?

<p>The quality of the reinforcement process. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects a learning-based approach to personality?

<p>Individuals will behave the same in identical situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about operant conditioning is true?

<p>Behavior is influenced by its consequences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is characteristic of the psychodynamic theory of personality?

<p>It emphasizes the role of internal conflicting forces. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of punishment in behavioral psychology?

<p>It decreases the future frequency of a behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'shaping' refer to in operant conditioning?

<p>Gradually modifying behavior through reinforcement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the implications of Skinner's work on behavior?

<p>People may not understand the causes of their behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between positive and negative consequences in operant conditioning?

<p>Positive is the addition of a stimulus, while negative is the removal of a stimulus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of reinforcement schedules, what distinguishes a fixed ratio schedule from a variable ratio schedule?

<p>Variable ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a changing number of responses. (A), Fixed ratio schedules provide reinforcement after an unchanging number of responses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of generalization in behavior refer to?

<p>Emitted behavior occurring without direct reinforcement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does differential reinforcement adapt behaviors according to their responses?

<p>By focusing on reinforcing only those responses that meet a specific criteria. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which limitation of radical behaviorism is related to the complexities of human cognitive processes?

<p>The neglect of complex cognitive behaviour in behaviorism. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavior would be considered as an example of discrimination in operant conditioning?

<p>Exhibiting different responses based on different stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the perspective on behaviorism relate to personality traits among different individuals?

<p>Behaviorism implies that personality is influenced by environmental stimuli and learned responses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does shaping play in behavioral modification?

<p>It encompasses gradually reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'context' refer to in the ordinary sequence of events?

<p>The external environment influencing behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would one best describe 'outcome' in the context of the ordinary sequence of events?

<p>The resultant effect of combined behavior and context. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which internal process is considered a key factor in determining behavior?

<p>Personality traits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied when internal events are excluded from explaining behavior?

<p>It is not necessary to analyze individual psychological states. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of behavior explanation, what does 'self-esteem' reflect?

<p>The overall perception of oneself. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the phrase 'we don’t infer anything' suggest in the context of behavior analysis?

<p>Behavior must only be viewed in isolation from internal states. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does 'motivation' play in the ordinary sequence of events?

<p>It influences internal decision-making processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is not included when analyzing behavior within the ordinary sequence?

<p>Reflections on past experiences (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is 'attitude' best defined in the context of behavioral sequences?

<p>A habitual thought pattern. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the relationship between context and behavior?

<p>Behavior is significantly influenced by the current context. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily indicated by a high rate of response in various contexts?

<p>Social reinforcement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which behavioral theorist is known as the 'Father of Behaviorism'?

<p>John B. Watson (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to behavioral theory, what should psychology focus on?

<p>Observable behavior and reactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of parsimony in behavioral focus imply?

<p>Simplicity is key in understanding behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of personality development did John B. Watson emphasize?

<p>The influence of nurture over nature (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the example of eating in different contexts imply about social behavior?

<p>Responses are influenced by environmental conditions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn from the 'Little Albert' experiment as discussed by Watson?

<p>Fear is a learned behavior through conditioning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of Millar and Dollard's contributions to behavioral theory?

<p>Social interactions and learning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Learning-Based Approaches

Explaining personality through how people learn, emphasizing that changes in behavior are due to experiences.

What is Personality?

A dynamic internal system that influences an individual's unique patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Explains personality through internal forces that compete and conflict, often stemming from unconscious drives.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes the potential for growth and development in individuals, but only if certain conditions are met.

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Trait Perspective

Views personality as a collection of stable traits that are embedded within a person.

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Goals of a Science

In psychology, these goals include investigating, describing, understanding, predicting, and influencing behavior.

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Pragmatic/Scientific Model of Personality

A model that focuses on observable behavior and aims to predict and control actions, minimizing the need for explanations of internal states.

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Parsimonious (Simple)

A principle where a model is considered simple and uses the fewest possible explanations while being effective.

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Dependent Variable (DV)

The factor being measured in an experiment. In behavioral studies, it often represents the rate of response.

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Context

The environment or situation surrounding a behavior. It includes external factors that influence the occurrence of a behaviour.

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Behaviour

Any observable action, thought, or feeling. It is the focus of behavioral studies.

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Outcome

The result of a behavior in a given context. It can be influenced by environmental factors.

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Rate of Responding

The frequency or speed of a behavior occurring, often used as a measure of the strength of a behavior.

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Parsimony

The principle of seeking the simplest explanation for observed phenomena. In behavioural studies, it means avoiding unnecessary or complex assumptions.

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Social Reinforcement

A type of reinforcement involving interactions with others. It strengthens behaviors by rewarding social connections or approval.

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John B. Watson

A pioneering psychologist known as the 'Father of Behaviorism'. He emphasized the importance of observable behavior in understanding human psychology.

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Internal Processes

Internal factors that influence behavior, such as emotions, motivations, and personality traits. These are unobservable.

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Ordinary Sequence of Events

A framework that describes how context, internal processes, behaviour, and outcome are related.

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What are internal events?

Thought, feeling, and action.

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Without Internal Events

A simplified version of the ordinary sequence of events where we only look at context, behavior, and outcome, without considering internal processes.

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Infer

To deduce or conclude something based on evidence or observations. Instead of directly observing your internal state, we have to assume it.

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Example where we do not infer internal processes?

When we observe someone's behavior in response to a context, but we do not make any assumptions about their internal thoughts or feelings.

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Explain behavior without internal events?

Instead of relying on internal processes, we focus on the direct relationship between the context, behavior, and outcome.

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Radical Behaviourism

A theory that emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping behavior, rejecting internal mental states as explanations for behavior. It arose as a reaction to Freudian and humanistic theories.

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Behaviorism

A scientific approach to understanding behavior that focuses on observable actions and their environmental influences. It studies how environments shape behavior and how to change behavior by manipulating those environments.

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Functional Analysis

A core goal of behaviorism that involves identifying the environmental factors that control behavior, revealing the relationships between actions and their consequences.

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Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, triggering a conditioned response. Examples include Pavlov's dog and learned helplessness.

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Stimulus-Response (S-R) Psychology

A fundamental concept in behaviorism that views behavior as a predictable reaction to specific environmental cues. It focuses on understanding the relationship between stimuli and responses.

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Habituation

The process of becoming less responsive to a stimulus after repeated exposure. It's the simplest form of learning and can have both positive and negative consequences.

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Elicited Behavior

A type of behavior that is automatically triggered by a specific stimulus, such as the salivation response in classical conditioning.

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Environment in Behaviorism

The totality of circumstances surrounding an organism, including physical settings, social interactions, and cultural influences. It is considered the primary factor shaping behavior.

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Positive Reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

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Negative Reinforcement

Removing a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

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Punishment

Adding or removing a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

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Continuous Reinforcement

Every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced.

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Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforcement is not given every time the desired behavior occurs.

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Extinction

A behavior stops occurring because the reinforcement for it is no longer available.

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Shaping

Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

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Generalization

Applying a learned behavior to similar situations.

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The Law of Effect

This law states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur in the future, while behaviors followed by annoying consequences become less likely.

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Trial and Error Learning

A learning process where an individual attempts different solutions to solve a problem until they find one that produces a desired outcome.

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Consequences Matter in Learning

The consequences that follow a behavior directly impact whether that behavior is learned and repeated. This is crucial for understanding the learning process.

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Skinner Box

A controlled environment used to study animal behavior, typically involving a lever or button that an animal can press to receive a reward.

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Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their consequences.

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Reinforcement

A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

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Study Notes

PS338 Behaviourist Perspectives

  • Course code is PS338
  • Course title is Behaviourist Perspectives
  • Lecturer is Dr Jenny Groarke
  • Contact details: Qwickly: 4290, University of Galway, @Galway.ie

Behaviourism and Personality

  • Behaviourism questions the concept of personality as something inherent
  • Instead, it views personality as a pattern of learned behaviours
  • The image of a pigeon and mouse illustrates this idea
  • The image of a pigeon and mouse with chat bubbles implies that personality can be shaped by the environment

Learning-Based Approaches

  • Learning is defined as change in behaviour due to experience
  • Two key ideas:
    • Stimuli close together in time elicit the same response
    • Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are repeated; unpleasant outcomes lead to abandoning the behavior

What is Personality?

  • Personality is a dynamic organisation, inside the person
  • It is made up of psychophysical systems
  • It forms characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings.
  • Quote from Allport (1961, p.11)

Theories of Personality

  • Psychodynamic theories (Freud, Adler, Erikson): View personality as a set of internal forces that compete and conflict.
  • Humanistic theories (Rogers, Maslow, Kelly): Emphasize potential for growth and development if conditions are met.
  • Trait theories (Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, the Big 5): Focus on stable, embedded traits within a person.

Science of Psychology

  • Goals of Psychology
    • Investigation and description
    • Understanding and prediction
    • Influence and control

Pragmatic/Scientific Model of Personality

  • A working model of behaviour focuses on observable behaviour
  • Parsimony (simplicity) is key
  • Observables are examined without denying internal states.
  • The utility of internal states in explaining behaviour is questioned, focus is on predictability and control

Example of an Ordinary Sequence of Events

  • An example of how behaviour isn't directly connected to personality, but rather the environment.
  • Context (e.g., weather) influences internal processes which shapes behaviours (e.g., cooking and eating) that lead to outcomes (e.g., happiness).
  • The external conditions can be manipulated and the same behaviour patterns can exist (e.g., sunny vs. rainy)

Example of Ordinary Sequence of Events: BUT WITHOUT Using Internal Events to Explain Behaviour

  • A simpler model of behaviour, purely based on relationship between environment (context), behaviour and outcome. No mention of internal factors.

Ordinary Sequence of Events Does Not Change:

  • Further explanation and example of behavior, purely based on environment, behavior and outcome. No internal factors

Sequence of Events: The Behavioural Focus on a Theory of Parsimony

  • Another diagram showing the context, behaviour, and outcome relationship.
  • The focus is totally on observable factors.

Let's Interpret the Data!

  • The dependent variable (DV) is the rate of response.
  • High rate of responding was observed across different contexts.
  • The pattern suggests a strong response to social reinforcement.

Behavioural Theory

  • Key figures in behavioural theory are Watson, Skinner, Thorndike, and Millar and Dollard

John B. Watson

  • Considered the "Father of Behaviorism"
  • Emphasized observable behavior over subjective experiences as the focus of psychology. (Watson, 1924/1930).
  • Nature versus nurture debate: Focused on the role of experience in shaping personality

Radical Behaviourism

  • A reaction against Freudian and humanistic interpretations of behaviour.
  • Focuses on environmental causes of behaviour
  • Inspired by Pavlov's work

Behaviourism

  • The science of behaviour
  • Behaviour has causes in the environment.
  • Analysis studies how to shape environments to influence likelyhood and frequency of behaviour.

Behaviorism (cont.)

  • People should be studied externally.
  • Personality sums a person's behaviour.
  • Causes of behaviour are observable.
  • Goal of functional analysis: Understanding causes within the environment.
  • Experience shapes everything.

Behaviourism (cont.)

  • Goal: To discover laws that describe functional behaviour-environment relationships.
  • Environment: Consists of all existing circumstances in which an organism exists
  • Stimulus: Specific component of the environment
  • Response: Specific behavioural instances.
  • Stimulus-response (S-R) concept

Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

  • How classical conditioning works
  • Pavlov's dog experiment
  • Learning that one stimulus is a warning or signal for another
  • Learned helplessness: Events seemingly happening randomly, leading to anxiety and depression

Classical Conditioning (S-R Psychology)

  • Modification of involuntary, elicited behaviours.
  • Magnitude of response is dependent variable.
  • Habituation is a key concept.

Behaviorism: Habituation

  • Simplest form of behaviour change from experience.
  • Can influence responses to violence in media, or impact of major life events
  • Affective forecasting: How we predict future emotions.

Classical Conditioning

  • Explains how a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a specific response.
  • Includes clear definitions of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses.

Classical Conditioning and the Conditioned Emotional Response

  • Demonstrates how existing emotions (unconditioned response) can become associated with a new stimulus (conditioned stimulus).
  • Demonstrates classical conditioning relating to Little Albert

Classical Conditioning and the Conditioned Emotional Response

  • Explains how stimuli are generalized. (Little Albert experiment)

Behaviourism: Basic Assumptions

  • Continuity Hypothesis: Early experiences have a lasting impact on personality development
  • Reductionism: Complex phenomena can be broken down into basic components
  • Empiricism: Focus on observables rather than intangible internal events in the study of human behaviour.
  • Determinism: All behaviour is caused by environmental factors.
  • Emphasis on observable behaviour, not internal thought processes
  • Behaviour is not random

Recap

  • Theories of Personality
  • Science of Psychology and the scientific model of personality
  • Behaviourist Take on Ordinary Events in Contrast to Other Approaches (Observable outcomes less focus on "inner processes")

Today

  • Skinner, Thorndike
  • Classical Conditioning (S>R)
  • Operant Conditioning (R>S)
  • Consequences of Behavior
  • RFT (Relational Frame Theory)

E. L. Thorndike

  • Key figures in early work on animal learning.
  • The Law of Effect: Consequences strengthen or weaken behaviour
  • Trial and error learning

B.F. Skinner

  • Key figure in reinforcement theory
  • Operant conditioning (how consequences influence behaviour)

Skinner (cont.)

  • Key concepts include the Skinner Box, which allowed for the study of behaviour in a controlled setting.
  • Emphasis on how behaviour is shaped by the environment
  • Emphasis on overt and covert behaviours

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

  • Two basic ways in which learning happens.

Techniques of Operant Conditioning

  • Reinforcement
  • Punishment
  • Shaping

Two Types of Consequences

  • Reinforcement:Increases future behaviours
  • Punishment: Decreases future behaviours

Reinforcement

  • When a stimulus change follows a response then increases the future frequency of behaviours .

Punishment

  • When a stimulus change follows a response and decreases the future frequency of behaviour

Consequences Reinforcements and Punishments

  • Positive/negative reinforcement and punishment are different types of consequences that influence behaviour

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous and Intermittent reinforcement schedules (fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, variable ratio).

It Gets a Little More Complicated...

  • Introduction of the three-term contingency: Antecedents, behaviour, and consequences that shape behaviour through observable and measurable events

ABC of Behavior

  • Diagram representing Antecedents, Behaviour, and Consequences

Not all Behaviour is Directly Learned

  • Generalisation and discrimination regarding emitted behaviour learned or innate.

Shaping Behavior Our Personality

  • Differential reinforcement of successive approximations to shape a target behaviours or skills to help increase the frequency, or to decrease frequency of maladaptive behaviour

Shaping Behaviour and Our Personality(cont.)

  • Reinforcing those responses that meet a specific criterion along some dimension (e.g., toilet training, table manners, studious habits).

Limitations of Radical Behaviour

  • Complex cognitive behaviours (thinking/problem solving) are difficult to explain with pure behavioral frameworks
  • Criticism of Functional Definitions and rule-governed behaviour.

RFT

  • Emphasises frames, relationships and reinforcement of specific language behaviour to shape our environment and interactions.

What is Behaviourism?

  • Overview of behaviorism as a distinct approach in psychology.

What do We Do?

  • Example questions of behaviour: Do inside or do outside.

Conclusions...

  • Overview, examples, and considerations regarding different types of responses to external triggers like pandemic restrictions

Conclusions... (cont.)

  • Behaviourist framework: External triggers, stimuli, association, reinforcement/punishment impact responses to situations.

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