Job Analysis and Design

• Job Analysis and Design are key considerations when looking at organizational structure

Setting up an Organization

• When starting a business, founders must first figure out how to produce G/S
• Key questions when considering this setup, these include:
• What to provide?
• Current state to desired state?
• What process should be adopted?
• What inputs are needed?

Defining an Organization's Strategy

• Businesses look at customer needs to address what G/S they should provide
• "How do we get from where we are to where we want to be" defines overall strategy
• Businesses consider whether to compete on price or uniqueness of a product
• Once a strategy is set, the transformation process is determined
• The choice depends on whether the organization focuses on mass production or customization
• Technology impacts equipment, raw materials, and tasks
• A Job is a group of tasks
• A position is a job for a specific individual
• Determining inputs includes raw materials and human resources
• The type of inputs depends on the chosen strategy:
• Cost minimization strategy uses standardized procedures/ specialized roles
• Differentiation strategy requires innovation, creativity, and diverse skill sets

Designing A Job

• Job design involves defining how work is completed by specifying tasks
• Job design is important for performance
• Errors are usually attributed to poor design rather than human failure
• Job redesign refers to modifying an existing job design

Approaches to Job Design

• Each approach has advantages/disadvantages
• The approach depends on the overall organizational strategy

Job Design for Efficiency

• Efficiency is achieved by dividing jobs into simple tasks, also referred to as work specialization/division of labor
• Work Specialization refers to the degree to which tasks in an organization are broken down into specific steps
• This is a fundamental principle that focuses on breaking down complex work for different employees
• Employees quickly learn skills and become efficient

Frederick W. Taylor's Contribution

• Frederick W. Taylor advocated for time and motion studies in 1911
• These studies are designed to determine the most efficient way to perform tasks
• Once the best method is identified, workers are selected, trained, and monitored

Examples of Efficiency-Based Job Design

• Assembly line production
• Introduced by Ford in 1913
• Reduced model T assembly time from 125 hours to 1.5
• Allowed Ford to lower production costs and car prices
• Fast food industry (e.g. McDonalds)
• Jobs have standardized tasks
• Employees follow strict procedures for efficiency and consistency
• Bank loan processing
• Processes are divided into specialized tasks
• One employee checks requirements, another processes loans, etc.

Limitations of Work Specialization

• Repetitive tasks can lead to boredom, fatigue, lower productivity and quality, absenteeism, and turnover
• Ford's solution in 1914
• Introduced a five-dollar daily wage, doubling wages
• Reduced work hours from nine to eight
• Resulted in lower turnover and higher satisfaction
• The downside of job specialization enhances efficiency but stifles creativity
• Limits personal growth and advancement

Jobs Designed for Motivation

• Excessive Job Specialization:
• Can lead to boredom, fatigue, reduced productivity, and job dissatisfaction

Job Redesign for Motivation

• Researchers explore ways to redesign to enhance motivation
• Herzberg (1968) suggested job enrichment by adding more responsibility
• Argyris (1964) recommended redesigning jobs to promote psychological success and self-esteem
• Hackman & Oldham (1976) developed the Job Characteristics Model

Job Characteristics Model

• Jobs are more motivating when they include:
• Skill variety (range of skills)
• Task identity (completing a whole task)
• Task significance (the impact of one’s job on others)
• Autonomy (level of independence)
• Feedback (extent of provided information on performance)

Psychological States & Job Outcomes

• When jobs possess these characteristics, employees experience
• Meaningfulness of work (through SV, TI, TS)
• Sense of responsibility (through Autonomy)
• Knowledge of results (through feedback)
• These psychological states mediate characteristics to satisfaction/performance

Jobs Designed to Address Physical and Mental Limitations

• Alternatives supplement job specialization by considering the work environment

Biological Job Design Approach (Ergonomics)

• Focuses on minimizing physical strain and biological risks
• Rooted in biomechanics, work physiology, occupational medicine, and anthropometry
• Aims to create a worker-friendly environment by improving equipment, furniture, and workspace

Ergonomics Principles

• Avoid bending forward
• Avoid twisting the trunk and straining the back
• Alternate posture and movements
• Avoid excessive reaching and above-shoulder tasks
• Limit the weight of lifted loads
• Use mechanical aids.
• Avoid carrying loads with one hand.

International Ergonomics Standards

• ILO as well as IEA provide ergonomics checkpoints to ensure safe/healthy work environments
• This covers the following
• Material storage
• Hand tools and machine safety
• Workstation design and lighting
• Hazardous substances
• Applies to both demanding physical jobs AND desk jobs (prolonged sitting at a computer)

Perceptual Motor Job Design Approach

• Focuses on reducing cognitive strain and mental overload
• Rooted in experimental psychology and human factors engineering
• Aims to minimize errors by designing jobs aligned with worker mental capacities
• Key principles
• Ensure adequate lighting
• Make displays clear
• Develop user-friendly computer programs
• Reduce memory and information-processing demands

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Job Designs

• Efficiency-Based
• Advantages include simple tasks requiring minimal training. Less stressful due to low mental demands, and a lower chance of errors.
• Disadvantages include: Dissatisfaction due to repetitive tasks, absenteeism, and turnover
• Motivational Job Design
• Advantages include encouraging high skill variety, task significance/autonomy
• Leads to higher performance, motivation, and job satisfaction and absenteeism
• Disadvantages are high-level skills make it difficult to hire, longer training, and higher mental demands risk errors occurring
• Biological Job Design
• Advantages include reducing physical strain, and enhancing worker safety and comfort
• Leads to job satisfaction and lower absenteeism
• Disadvantages include high implementation costs/ investment in equipment
• Perceptual-Motor Job Design
• Advantages include simplifying tasks, requiring less training, and reducing mental overload by leading to fewer accidents
• Disadvantages include low job satisfaction due to repetitive tasks

Managerial Importance of Job Design

• Understanding approaches helps managers improve
• Training costs and efficiency
• Managers can redesign jobs to address organizational concerns and improve employee wellness

What is Job Analysis?

• Job analysis involves identifying tasks and responsibilities required for a job
• It defines the job's relationship to others and its work environment
• The process starts with understanding workflow to identify specific tasks
• It determines the equipment, relationships, and inputs
• Results include job descriptions and job specifications

Job Description

• A formal document of responsibilities, qualifications, skills, and conditions
• This serves as a guide for employers and employees on what is expected
• Includes
• Job Title
• Job Summary
• Key Duties and responsibilities
• Helps define what a job entails

Job Specificity

• Identifies Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other Characteristics (KSAOs) required for job performance.
• Factors considered include the following:
• Equipment usage determines the knowledge and skills needed to operate it
• Job Relationships determines interactions with other employees
• Inputs determines knowledge and skills to handle them
• Job context defines the work conditions and additional characteristics

Definitions of Key KSAOs

• Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts, information, data, and procedures
• Skill is the ability to apply knowledge through training, experience, and practice
• Ability is the general capacity to perform a task
• Other Characteristics are traits like personality, physical abilities, and certifications needed for success

Importance of Job Specifications

• KSAOs must be based on a careful study of qualifications and should not be subjective but reflect actual requirements

Why do a Job Analysis?

• Foundation of Job Design, it is essential for structuring the job effectively
• Job Supports various HR functions, these include: recruitment, selection, training, performance, compensation, and safety

Role in Recruitment and Selection

• Job analysis identifies job roles to attract suitable applicants
• Guides organizations in screening candidates based on job requirements.
• selection methods align with specific job demands.

Performance Management and Employee Movements

• Job descriptions provide a framework for setting goals and evaluating performance
• Informs training and transfer and employees meet the (KSA)
• Training and development helps identify deficiencies in KSA
• Training programs enhance EE capabilities based on job specifications

Job Evaluation & Compensation

• Jobs are rated based on
• Skills
• Responsibilities
• Effort Needed
• Working Conditions and compensation structures
• The basis is salary structures ensuring fair compensation
• More complex jobs require knowledge and skills and are compensated more

Health & Safety Considerations

• Identifies hazardous job conditions and safety measures needed
• Employees in these risky environments need proper protective gear

Keeping Job Descriptions Updated

• Changes in tasks require analyses
• Outdated job descriptions have serious repercussions like unsafe hiring or compensation

How is job analysis done?

• HR Departments, Supervisors, Hired consultants, and Owners can conduct said analysis.

General Process of Job Analysis

• Planning (define objectives of the job)
• Preparing the instrument via surveys, other data collection methodologies, and interviews
• Determining data collection methods (observation, surveys, interviews)
• Processing collected data to analyze the key components
• Writing job descriptions to document skills and knowledge
• Validation to ensure accuracy via reviewing with employees Finalization for proper approval for use within HR

Planning for Job Analysis

• Determine objectives defining the expected aspects of the job
• Communicate the process to employees
• Explain the roles of the process
• Clarify the job, as it is, not as the job should be

Preparation of Instruments for Job Analysis

• Identify the specific purpose of the job and ensure appropriate data collection
• Understand the compensable factors
• Compensable considerations can include skills, knowledge, responsibilities, effort, and working conditions
• Specific minimum job requirements should be noted and training needs considered

Balance Comprehensiveness and Efficiency

• Balance the consideration of HR functions without making the process too time-consuming
• Key data to collect
• Job output and process
• Equipment
• Collaboration
• The time requirements
• Physical labor demands
• Hazard exposure

Complete Job Spec

• Include necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) to perform the job effectively

Data Collection Methods for Job Analysis

• Survey Questionnaires are the most common
• A prepared questionnaire should be created
• Interviews (used for more complex jobs)
• Allows for more probing to collect information
• Observation
• Involves watching the job incumbent perform tasks
• Combination of all methods is possible

Data Processing for Job Analysis

• Can be organized within spreadsheets for data collection
• Online collection is an option that allows real-time tracking
• Reduces manual entry and errors by speeding up the analysis

Validation and Finalization of Job Analysis

• Draft description review by incumbents and supervisors
• Final documentation is created if all looks accurate to both parties

Legally Bound: HR and Compliance Considerations

• Must align with organization and legal requirements
• Compliance minimizes legal risks and must comply with standards