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Questions and Answers

What is implied about true opinions according to Socrates?

  • They replace the need for knowledge.
  • They need justification to hold value. (correct)
  • They have a lasting impact.
  • They are always beneficial.

Which of the following is NOT a component of the traditional definition of knowledge?

  • S is justified in believing that P
  • S believes that P
  • P is true
  • P is universal (correct)

What principle emphasizes the permissible use of power over individuals?

  • Responsibility Principle
  • Liberty Principle
  • Harm Principle (correct)
  • Censorship Principle

Why might true beliefs not be meaningful without justification?

<p>They do not lead to knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what context can certain opinions lead to punishment, according to the content?

<p>When delivered to an excited mob. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to true opinions without justification, according to Socrates?

<p>They disappear from one's mind. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about the relationship between true beliefs and knowledge?

<p>True beliefs automatically equate to knowledge. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Harm Principle, what is not considered a valid reason for exercising power over someone?

<p>Preventing personal offense. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Law of Nature imply about covenants?

<p>Covenants are binding and must be performed. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Lockean framework, what characterizes the rights to life, liberty, and property?

<p>They are natural negative claim-rights. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the French Revolution, what did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen emphasize?

<p>The importance of natural rights and equality. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Bentham's view on 'natural rights'?

<p>He argued they were mere rhetorical nonsense. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key criticism Bentham made about the origin of governments?

<p>Governments arise purely from social contracts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which article from the Declaration of the Rights of Man states that men are born free and equal?

<p>Article 1 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Bentham suggest about rights in the absence of government?

<p>They hold no significance without a governing authority. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of rights are associated with the American God-given rights according to the content provided?

<p>Natural negative claim-rights. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily enables individuals to feel sympathy for others?

<p>Understanding the situation that excites the passion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the nature of sympathy towards those who are no longer alive?

<p>It overlooks their situation and imagines their final moments (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of justice involves making proper use of one's own possessions?

<p>Distributive Justice (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does injustice specifically relate to according to the content?

<p>An injury to a specific individual (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What command is stipulated for parents and children in civilized nations?

<p>To support and care for one another (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is injustice punished according to the information provided?

<p>It disrupts social cohesion and safety (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sympathy differ from parallel emotions?

<p>Sympathy can exist even when one's own feelings differ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key requirement for social interaction among individuals?

<p>Abstinence from injuring one another (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Sartre imply when he states that there is no difference between the being of man and his being-free?

<p>Being and freedom are fundamentally linked. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a person acting in bad faith according to Sartre?

<p>They are pretending they are not free. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does consciousness respond to factual states according to the provided content?

<p>It can choose how to interpret them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Sartre view reductive materialism in relation to freedom?

<p>It confines individuals to their material existence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction made between a liar and a person in bad faith?

<p>A liar is intentionally deceptive while a person in bad faith hides from themselves. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Mill, what distinguishes higher pleasures from lower pleasures?

<p>Higher pleasures involve elevated faculties beyond basic needs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does John Stuart Mill imply about happiness in relation to higher and lower pleasures?

<p>Pleasure derived from higher faculties is necessary for true happiness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'Greatest Happiness Principle' in Mill's utilitarianism?

<p>Acting in ways that lead to the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key objection to utilitarianism that Mill addresses?

<p>Calculating the consequences of actions requires too much time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant's Categorical Imperative, what must a maxim do?

<p>Be capable of being willed as universal law. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the hypothetical imperative, which statement is true?

<p>It is dictated by personal desires and situational context. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Pete’s decision to borrow money from Joan illustrate a failure of the Categorical Imperative?

<p>It demonstrates a contradiction in universal acceptability of promises. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Mill suggest about the judges of higher pleasures?

<p>They are competent and prefer higher pleasures despite dissatisfaction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is ataraxia described as in the content?

<p>Mental tranquility (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Stoics, how should health be regarded?

<p>Preferred, but not desired (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes theological virtues from human virtues?

<p>Theological virtues direct human beings towards God (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which virtue is described as 'the love of God above all things'?

<p>Charity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the virtue of hope?

<p>To desire the kingdom of heaven and eternal life (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What argument does Aquinas address regarding the existence of God?

<p>It is self-evident once one conceives of it (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the Stoics' view on external circumstances?

<p>Character should be shaped to avoid desires about external circumstances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Aquinas suggest is an inherent quality of self-evidence?

<p>It exists naturally within us (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Sympathy's Source

Sympathy arises not from directly feeling the other's emotions, but from imagining ourselves in their situation and understanding the emotions that would arise within us.

Socializing and Passion

Social interactions make us more aware of others' emotions and provide context for understanding their passion.

Sympathy's Independence

Sympathy doesn't require mirroring another's emotions. We can sympathize with someone who's happy even if we're sad, and vice versa.

Sympathy for the Dead

We can sympathize with those who have passed away, imagining the fear and uncertainty they may have faced before death.

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Commutative Justice

The principle of fairness in interactions between individuals, respecting boundaries and property rights.

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Distributive Justice

Fairness in the distribution of resources or responsibilities based on individual contributions, needs, or merits.

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Estimative Justice

The ability to accurately judge the value or worth of things, people, or situations.

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Injustice as a Social Threat

Injustice harms society by disrupting social cohesion and safety, making it difficult to maintain order and trust.

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Law of Nature

A fundamental principle that compels individuals to uphold their agreements. Without this law, promises would be meaningless and society would descend into chaos.

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Justice vs Injustice

Justice is defined as fulfilling one's commitments, while injustice is the failure to do so.

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Lockean Rights

These rights, rooted in natural law, encompass life, health, liberty, and possessions. They represent a natural entitlement to freedom from external interference.

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American God-Given Rights

Similar to Lockean rights, these rights are also based on natural law and God's will. They include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, emphasizing a divine foundation for human rights.

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Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

This document, drafted during the French Revolution, articulated the principles of the revolution in terms of 'natural rights'. It aimed to establish equality and liberty for all citizens.

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Bentham's Objection to Natural Rights

Jeremy Bentham argues that 'natural rights' is a flawed concept. He contends that no one is born free in the state of nature, and rights only exist within a political community.

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What makes a government legitimate based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man?

According to the Declaration, a government is legitimate if it's founded on the consent of the people and protects their natural rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

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Bentham's 2nd Objection on Natural Rights

Bentham argues that contracts arise from government, not the other way around. Therefore, rights cannot truly exist without a government to enforce them.

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What is the value of justification?

Justification helps us understand the connections between true beliefs and prevents us from simply accepting them as facts without understanding their basis.

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Knowledge vs. Opinion

Knowledge is a justified true belief, while opinion is a belief that may or may not be true, and isn't necessarily backed by justification.

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True Opinion

A true opinion is a belief that happens to be correct but lacks justification.

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Tied-down Knowledge

Knowledge is like a tied-down work of Daedalus, secure and lasting, while true opinion is like a runaway slave, fleeting and unreliable.

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Harm Principle

The only justification for limiting someone's liberty is to prevent harm to others.

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Is offense a harm?

Mere offense at the expression of an idea does not constitute a harm, as it doesn't cause actual damage.

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Inciting a Riot

Expressing opinions in a way that can incite violence or cause harm is not protected, even if the opinions themselves are not inherently harmful.

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Context Matters

The way an opinion is expressed can determine whether it's considered harmful or not.

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Higher & Lower Pleasures

Mill argues that humans have faculties beyond animal appetites and true happiness involves the gratification of these higher faculties. These higher pleasures are intellectual, moral, and aesthetic, while lower pleasures are those associated with basic physical needs and desires.

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Competent Judges

Mill believes that those who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures will always choose higher pleasures, despite their potential for greater discontent.

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What is Mill's reply to the objection that we don't have time to calculate the consequences of each action?

Mill argues that humanity has had a long history of experience, allowing us to learn from past actions and understand their tendencies, forming the basis of morality and prudence.

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Greatest Happiness Principle

The core principle of utilitarianism, which states that actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they cause unhappiness. Happiness is defined as the presence of pleasure and the absence of pain.

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Secondary Principles

These are everyday moral rules that are derived from the Greatest Happiness Principle and provide practical guidance for making decisions.

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Categorical Imperative

A moral principle formulated by Immanuel Kant, which states that one should act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

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Maxim

A principle or rule that guides your action. Think of it as the reason behind what you are doing.

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Hypothetical vs. Categorical Imperatives

Hypothetical imperatives are conditional on your desires or goals, while categorical imperatives are unconditional and apply to everyone, regardless of their desires.

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Being-Free

The state of being a human being, intrinsically linked to our freedom. It means that our essence, our core nature, is defined by our ability to make choices and take responsibility for them.

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Bad Faith

The act of lying to oneself about our freedom. It's a way of choosing to act as if we were determined by external forces, rather than acknowledging our own choices.

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Facticity

The set of facts or circumstances that make up our existence. It includes our physical body, our past experiences, and our social environment.

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Freedom

The core concept of existentialism. It means that we are free to make choices and decide what matters to us, despite the constraints of our facticity.

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Reductive Materialism

A way of thinking that argues that everything can be explained by analyzing it to its most basic physical components. Sartre criticizes it as a form of bad faith, as it denies our freedom.

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Conforming to Nature

Living in harmony with the natural order of the universe, accepting what happens and avoiding desires that contradict this order.

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Ataraxia

A state of mental tranquility achieved by aligning one's character with the order and rationality of nature.

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Stoic's View of Desires

Stoics believe we should not desire things like wealth or fame, but instead prefer what aligns with nature, like health.

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Human Virtue

Qualities that are inherent to human beings, leading to human happiness.

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Theological Virtue

Qualities that direct us towards God and lead to divine happiness.

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Faith (Theological Virtue)

Complete commitment and belief in God and his revelations.

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Hope (Theological Virtue)

Desire for eternal life and the kingdom of heaven, trusting in God's promises.

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Charity (Theological Virtue)

Love for God above all things and love for others as ourselves, driven by God's love.

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Study Notes

Tranquility (Ataraxia)

  • Tranquility is a state of freedom from pain and fear/anxiety.
  • Desires are categorized as necessary or unnecessary.
  • Necessary desires are required for life.
  • Unnecessary desires are pleasant but not needed for life.

Types of Desires

  • Natural desires are tied to human nature.
  • Unnatural desires are socially determined.

Pleasure

  • Physical and mental pleasures exist.
  • A life of pleasure is achievable without neglecting prudence and virtue.

Material Beliefs

  • False beliefs about the world cause unnecessary pain, anxiety, and anguish.
  • Death is not something to fear, but the annihilation of the subject.
  • Living involves sensation; death is the cessation of sensation.

Death

  • Death, the annihilation of the subject, is not something to fear.
  • The experience of death is not a conscious experience.
  • Fear of death arises from the pain of future loss.

Socrates' Ethics

  • Virtue is sufficient for eudaimonia.
  • Virtue is wisdom.

Goods

  • Instrumental goods are things that are good as a means to something else, such as money.
  • Intrinsic goods are good in and of themselves.
  • Neutrals are neither good nor bad.

Stoics

  • Virtue is the only intrinsic good.
  • Other things (like wealth and health) are not intrinsic goods.
  • The universe is rational and governed by reason.

Human Disharmony

  • Disharmony arises from a conflict between our desires and external circumstances.
  • Complete control over circumstances and full knowledge of the universe's order are impossible.
  • Therefore, we must conform to nature.

Shaping Character

  • We should shape our character to avoid desiring things outside our control.
  • This will lead to tranquility.
  • Fame, wealth, and other external goods are not intrinsic goods.
  • Health should be preferred but not desired as an intrinsic good..

Theological Virtues

  • Virtue is tied to the nature of a human being and leads to divine happiness.
  • These virtues are faith, hope, and charity.

Knowledge of God

  • Aquinas argues that the existence of God is self-evident.
  • The existence can be deduced based on the nature of whole and part.
  • Knowledge of God is implanted in all of us.

Proofs of God's Existence

  • Argument from Motion: everything in motion is moved by something else, thus there must be a first mover.
  • Argument from Efficient Cause: there must be a first cause for all caused things.
  • Argument from Contingency: contingent things cannot be from nothing.
  • Argument from Gradation: there must be a highest standard for all types of things.
  • Argument from Design: the complexity of the universe points to an intelligent designer.

Pleasure

  • Bentham and Mill's utilitarianism consider pleasure to be the ultimate good.
  • Criteria for assessing pleasure: intensity, duration, certainty, remoteness, fecundity, and purity.
  • The simpleton problem - people with refined taste are more difficult to satisfy than those with simple taste.

Higher and Lower Pleasures

  • Mill believed that some pleasures are higher than others.
  • Higher pleasures are tied to the elevated human faculties.

Judges

  • Judges who have experienced various feelings prefer one type of pleasure over another.

Utilitarianism

  • Mill argues that the human species has had ample time to learn the relationship of actions and consequences relating to happiness..

Categorical Imperative

  • Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.
  • A maxim that fails the categorical imperative test is a maxim that does not derive from pure moral principle.
  • Hypothetical imperatives.

The Value of Debating False Claims

  • Correct opinions are essential to understand and reject false and received opinions.
  • Understanding why a belief is justified is essential to moral thought.

Being and Nothingness

  • Sartre's philosophy explores freedom, responsibility, and the human condition.
  • Being precedes essence and individuals create their own essence through actions and choices.
  • Bad faith is a denial of one’s freedom and responsibility.

Moral Virtues

  • Self-regarding virtue: makes it possible for all other virtues to exist.
  • No justice in the state of nature: people act in self-interest and violence prevails.
  • Desire for peace is motivated by the fear of violent death.

The Civil Magistrate

  • The civil magistrate has the power to promote prosperity and discourage vice.
  • The power is used to prevent injustice and promote the common good through establishing a good moral order.

Social Justice

  • Social justice involves the fair balance of factors among people in society.

Natural Rights

  • Natural rights are based on reason and are not dependent on positive law.
  • Bentham argues that natural rights are a mistake and are rhetorical nonsense.
  • Locke and Founding Fathers believe in natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Positive Rights

  • Positive rights are rights that require action from the state, like employment, social security, and healthcare.
  • These rights are contrasted with negative rights, which involve non-interference by the state.
  • Positive rights can be criticized for the expense of providing them and who bears responsibility for the cost..

The Harm Principle

  • A citizen's liberty should be limited only to prevent harm to others.
  • Actions that do not cause harm to others should not be regulated.
  • Censorship is a form of coercion that limits freedom of thought and action.

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