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Match the following terms with the appropriate picture that best represents each term.

Endocrine signalling = A Autocrine signalling = B Neurotransmission = C Paracrine signalling = D Neuroendocrine signalling = E

Explain the differences in how intracellular receptors and membrane receptors work.

Explain what an antagonist is and why a physician might prescribe tamoxifen to treat breast cancer.

List TWO functions of testosterone in male vertebrate animals.

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How would the levels of sex steroid hormones change when a fish undergoes sex change from the female to the male phenotype?

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Suggest a ‘proximate’ reason and an ‘ultimate’ reason for male kākāpō gathering in leks.

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List TWO benefits and TWO costs of living in a social group.

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What relationship do you expect to see between group size and the probability of capture by birds in butterflies?

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Name the strategy butterflies in large groups are using.

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What predictions could you make about parental investment in males compared to females in Archey’s frog?

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Is the alarm call by vervet monkeys an example of VISUAL, CHEMICAL, or ACOUSTIC communication?

<p>Acoustic</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are TWO benefits of using alarm calls to transmit information in vervet monkeys?

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In which scenario would alarm calling by vervet monkeys be considered altruistic?

<p>The call benefited relatives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List ONE benefit for both the cleaner and clients of taking part in behavioral symbiosis on coral reefs.

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Which of the following definitions best characterizes a phoretic relationship?

<p>Temporary attachment on a larger host to obtain transport to a new location.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structures or organs are typically absent in parasitic copepods?

<p>Appendages, gut, and sensory organs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct order of tissues or organs traversed by hookworms during their migration?

<p>Skin, blood vessels, lungs, trachea, heart, oesophagus, intestine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common strategy used by many parasites transmitted by predation to increase their chances of transmission?

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From the options provided, what is the typical pattern almost always observed in natural populations regarding parasite load?

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Choose the graph showing the lines/curves you'd expect if parasites cause mortality and if parasites have no effect on fish mortality.

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How many embryonic tissue layers does this animal have?

<p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

To which phylum does this animal belong?

<p>Cnidaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rank the following phyla in order of least number of known species to greatest number of known species: Arthropoda, Chordata, Mollusca, Porifera.

<p>Porifera, Chordata, Mollusca, Arthropoda</p> Signup and view all the answers

The deuterostome developmental mode is characterised by ____________ and __________ cleavage and the development of the _____________ from the blastopore. An example of a phylum which undergoes deuterostome development is ___________.

<p>radial, indeterminate, anus, Echinodermata</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many phyla are represented in Figure 1?

<p>5</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) belong to the clade Ecdysozoa?

<p>D, E, F</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) are amniotes?

<p>G, H</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) have an open circulatory system?

<p>A, B, C</p> Signup and view all the answers

List three other methods discussed in class that are key to conservation.

<p>Habitat restoration, species recovery programs, public awareness campaigns</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how mass extinctions can stimulate the emergence of new species.

<p>Mass extinctions remove dominant species, opening up ecological niches for new species to evolve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List three mechanisms by which species could become reproductively isolated.

<p>Temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, geographical isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Using the example of sugar gliders and flying squirrels, explain the concepts of convergent and divergent evolution.

<p>Convergent evolution involves unrelated species evolving similar traits due to similar environments, while divergent evolution involves related species evolving different traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Use natural selection theory to explain the decrease in antler size in male deer.

<p>Buck antlers are getting smaller because larger antlered bucks are hunted more, leading to smaller antler size being favored.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why the statement about bucks growing big antlers is a misconception of natural selection theory.

<p>Antler growth is a genetic trait influenced by environmental pressures, not a conscious decision by the bucks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the two: bee hummingbird or common ostrich, would have the higher basal metabolic rate?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the two would have the higher standardized basal metabolic rate per gram of body mass?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why bee hummingbirds lose body heat much more quickly than an ostrich.

<p>Due to their small size, bee hummingbirds have a higher surface area to volume ratio, causing quicker heat loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why hummingbirds are endothermic poikilotherms.

<p>Hummingbirds regulate their body temperature endothermically, but can experience temperature fluctuations, making them poikilothermic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the four modes of feeding would hummingbirds be employing when obtaining nectar?

<p>Fluid feeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

List the four classes of essential nutrients needed by hummingbirds.

<p>Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins</p> Signup and view all the answers

List two reasons that support the statement that birds have a more efficient respiratory system than mammals.

<p>Unidirectional airflow, larger lung surface area</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of double circulation compared to single circulation.

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How many embryonic tissue layers does a radially symmetrical acoelomate with a gastrovascular cavity have?

<p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

To which phylum does this acoelomate animal belong?

<p>Cnidaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rank the following phyla (Arthropoda, Chordata, Mollusca, Porifera) in order of least number of known species to greatest number of known species.

<p>Porifera, Mollusca, Chordata, Arthropoda</p> Signup and view all the answers

The deuterostome developmental mode is characterised by ________________ and ________________ cleavage and the development of the ________________ from the blastopore. An example of a phylum which undergoes deuterostome development is ________________.

<p>radial, indeterminate, anus, Chordata</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many phyla are represented in Figure 1?

<p>8</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) belong to the clade Ecdysozoa?

<p>A, C, E</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) are amniotes?

<p>D, F, H</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) have an open circulatory system?

<p>A, B, C</p> Signup and view all the answers

List THREE other methods discussed in class that are key to conservation.

<p>Habitat restoration, breeding programs, public education</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how mass extinctions can stimulate the emergence of new species.

<p>Mass extinctions create ecological opportunities by removing dominant species, allowing other groups to diversify and fill new niches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List THREE mechanisms by which species could become reproductively isolated.

<p>Geographic isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concepts of convergent and divergent evolution using the example of the Australian sugar glider and the North American flying squirrel.

<p>Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species evolve similar traits, while divergent evolution happens when related species develop different traits due to environmental pressures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Use natural selection theory to explain the decrease in antler size in male deer populations.

<p>Natural selection favors smaller antlers because bucks with larger antlers are often hunted more due to their desirability, thus reducing the likelihood of large-antlered bucks reproducing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why the statement, "The bucks know that if they grow big antlers, they will be hunted before they can reproduce" is a misconception of natural selection theory.

<p>Natural selection operates on genetic traits rather than conscious decisions; bucks do not know to manipulate their antler growth for survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the bee hummingbird or the common ostrich has a higher basal metabolic rate?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the bee hummingbird or the common ostrich would have the higher standardized basal metabolic rate per gram of body mass?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why bee hummingbirds lose body heat much more quickly than an ostrich.

<p>Bee hummingbirds have a higher surface area to volume ratio, causing them to lose heat faster.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why hummingbirds are considered endothermic poikilotherms.

<p>Hummingbirds regulate their body temperature internally but can also allow it to vary with the environment during periods of torpor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mode of feeding do hummingbirds employ when obtaining nectar?

<p>Fluid feeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

List the FOUR classes of essential nutrients that animals need to acquire from their diet.

<p>Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins</p> Signup and view all the answers

List TWO reasons that support the statement that birds have a more efficient respiratory system than mammals.

<p>Birds have unidirectional airflow in their lungs and air sacs that provide a constant supply of oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage of double circulation compared to single circulation.

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How many embryonic tissue layers does this radially symmetrical acoelomate have?

<p>Two</p> Signup and view all the answers

To which phylum does this radially symmetrical acoelomate belong?

<p>Cnidaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rank the following phyla in order of least number to greatest number of known species: Arthropoda, Chordata, Mollusca, Porifera.

<p>Porifera, Chordata, Mollusca, Arthropoda</p> Signup and view all the answers

The deuterostome developmental mode is characterised by ______ and ______ cleavage and the development of the ______ from the blastopore.

<p>indeterminate, radial, anus</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phylum undergoes deuterostome development?

<p>Chordata</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many phyla are represented in Figure 1?

<p>Four</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) belong to the clade Ecdysozoa?

<p>C, E, F</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) are amniotes?

<p>A, D</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which animal(s) have an open circulatory system?

<p>B, H</p> Signup and view all the answers

List three other methods key to conservation discussed in class.

<p>Habitat restoration, species protection, legislation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how mass extinctions can stimulate the emergence of new species.

<p>Mass extinctions open ecological niches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List three mechanisms by which species could become reproductively isolated.

<p>Geographic isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concepts of convergent and divergent evolution using Australian marsupials and eutherians.

<p>Convergent evolution results in similar traits despite different lineages, whereas divergent evolution leads to differences among related species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Use natural selection theory to explain the decrease in antler size in male deer.

<p>Smaller antlers are more advantageous as they reduce the chance of being hunted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why the statement about bucks and antler growth reflects a misconception of natural selection theory.

<p>Bucks do not consciously adjust their traits; rather, those with smaller antlers simply survive to reproduce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the two (bee hummingbird or common ostrich) would have the higher basal metabolic rate?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which bird would have the higher standardized basal metabolic rate per gram of body mass?

<p>Bee hummingbird</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why bee hummingbirds lose body heat more quickly than ostriches.

<p>Smaller body size and surface area to volume ratio lead to quicker heat loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Using Figure 4, explain why hummingbirds are endothermic poikilotherms.

<p>Hummingbirds can regulate their body temperature even in varying environmental conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mode of feeding would hummingbirds be employing when obtaining nectar?

<p>Fluid feeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

List the four classes of essential nutrients.

<p>Vitamins, minerals, amino acids, fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

List two reasons supporting that birds have a more efficient respiratory system than mammals.

<p>Unidirectional airflow, air sacs</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of double circulation compared to single circulation.

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Study Notes

Animal Diversity

  • Radially symmetrical acoelomates with a gastrovascular cavity: These animals have two embryonic tissue layers (diploblastic) and belong to the phylum Cnidaria.
  • Phyla ranked by number of species from least to greatest: Porifera, Chordata, Mollusca, Arthropoda.
  • Deuterostome development is characterized by radial cleavage and formation of the anus from the blastopore. An example of a phylum that undergoes deuterostome development is Chordata.
  • Five Phyla are represented in Figure 1.
  • Animals A, B, C, and H belong to the clade Ecdysozoa.
  • Animals E, F, and G are amniotes.
  • Animal A has an open circulatory system.
  • Other key conservation methods include habitat restoration, species reintroduction, and protected areas.

Animal Evolution

  • Mass extinction events can stimulate the emergence of new species by:
    • Removing dominant species which creates opportunities for other species to diversify.
    • Opening up new niches that can be filled by surviving species, leading to rapid adaptation and diversification.
  • Mechanisms of reproductive isolation that lead to speciation:
    • Habitat Isolation: When species are separated by physical barriers, they can evolve different traits leading to reproductive incompatibility.
    • Behavioral Isolation: Differences in mating rituals or courtship behaviors can prevent interbreeding.
    • Temporal Isolation: Species that breed at different times of the year or day can become reproductively isolated.
  • Convergent evolution occurs when two unrelated species independently evolve similar traits due to similar environmental pressures, such as the sugar glider and the flying squirrel. This suggests that natural selection favors traits that are advantageous in similar environments.
  • Divergent evolution occurs when two related species evolve different traits due to different selective pressures. The sugar glider and the kangaroo, despite sharing a recent common ancestor, have evolved very different adaptations.
  • The decrease in antler size in deer populations could be explained by natural selection:
    • Hunters preferentially target deer with large antlers.
    • This selective pressure favors deer with smaller antlers that are less likely to be hunted.
    • Over time, this leads to a shift in the population towards smaller antlers.
  • The statement about deer intentionally growing smaller antlers is a misconception because:
    • Natural selection acts on existing variations within a population, not on conscious decisions made by individual organisms.
    • It is the deer with the smaller antlers (passing on their genes) that survive to reproduce.

Animal Physiology

  • The bee hummingbird would have a higher basal metabolic rate than the common ostrich.
  • The bee hummingbird would have a higher standardized basal metabolic rate per gram of body mass than the common ostrich because smaller animals lose heat more rapidly than larger animals.
  • Hummingbirds are endothermic and lose heat rapidly because of their small size and high surface area to volume ratio.
  • Hummingbirds are poikilotherms because they are endothermic but their body temperature fluctuates in relation to the environment.
  • Hummingbirds employ fluid feeding when obtaining nectar.
  • The four classes of essential nutrients are:
    • Water
    • Essential amino acids
    • Vitamins
    • Minerals
  • Bird respiratory system is considered more efficient than mammals because:
    • Air flows through the lungs in only one direction (unidirectional airflow) making for more efficient gas exchange.
    • Specialized respiratory structures such as air sacs that allow for efficient oxygen uptake during both inhalation and exhalation.
  • Double circulation has the advantage of allowing for higher blood pressure and more efficient oxygen delivery to the tissues. However, it requires more energy to pump blood due to the longer distance the blood has to travel.

Nervous Systems

  • The correct sequence of processes during signal propagation is:
    • 1. Synaptic input from presynaptic neurons
    • 4. Integration of synaptic potentials
    • 2. Depolarisation of the axon hillock membrane
    • 5. Propagation of action potentials along an axon
    • 6. Fusion of vesicles with presynaptic membrane
    • 3. Release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
  • The membrane on the A-side will become negatively charged relative to the membrane on the B-side when all channels open. This is because the membrane is more permeable to Na+ than K+, and there is a higher concentration of Na+ on the B-side.
  • Nervous systems encode information in action potentials:
    • Sensory neurons detect stimuli from the environment and convert them into electrical signals.
    • Interneurons connect and integrate information from sensory neurons and other interneurons.
    • Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and other organs, resulting in a behavioral response.
  • Two types of animal behaviors generated by central pattern generators:
    • Locomotion (walking, running, swimming)
    • Rhythmic behaviors (breathing, heartbeat, chewing)
  • Sensory transduction is the process by which a sensory receptor converts a stimulus into an electrical signal:
    • The stimulus causes a change in the permeability of the receptor cell membrane.
    • This change allows ions to flow into or out of the cell, which generates a receptor potential.
  • The cupula helps to detect changes in fluid flow, stimulating the hair cells within the ear.
  • Combinatorial coding is advantageous because it allows for a much larger range of odors to be detected compared to labeled-line coding. This is because each receptor neuron can respond to multiple odors, and the combination of activated receptor neurons determines the specific odor perceived.

Hormones and Reproduction

  • Endocrine signaling is the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream where they can travel to distant target cells. A
  • Autocrine signaling involves a cell releasing a signal that acts on itself. B
  • Neurotransmission involves the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons, which bind to receptors on postsynaptic neurons. C
  • Paracrine signaling involves a cell releasing a signal that acts only on nearby cells. D
  • Neuroendocrine signaling involves the release of neurohormones from neurons into the bloodstream. E
  • Intracellular receptors are located inside the cell and bind to lipid-soluble signaling molecules that can pass through the cell membrane. The hormone-receptor complex then alters gene expression within the cell to exert an effect.
  • Membrane receptors are located on the cell surface and bind to water-soluble signaling molecules. This binding activates a signaling cascade inside the cell, ultimately leading to a change in cell function.

Tamoxifen

  • Tamoxifen is an antagonist, meaning it blocks the actions of a substance.
  • Tamoxifen is an estrogen antagonist, meaning it blocks the binding of estrogen to estrogen receptors.
  • In breast cancer, estrogen can promote tumor growth, so tamoxifen can be used to treat the disease.

Testosterone

  • Testosterone plays a key role in male development and reproduction.
  • Testosterone stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics, including the development of muscles, bones, and body hair.
  • Testosterone is essential for sperm production.

Sex Reversal in Fish

  • Sex reversal in fish is driven by hormonal changes.
  • When a fish undergoes sex reversal from female to male, testosterone levels will increase, while estrogen levels will decrease.

Kākāpō Lekking

  • Kākāpō males gather in leks to display and attract mates.
  • The proximate reason for this behavior is a hormonal trigger that stimulates these displays in males.
  • The ultimate reason for this behavior is to increase reproductive success by attracting multiple mates.
  • Male kākāpō create bowls to amplify their booming and chinking calls, which attract females.

Benefits and Costs of Social Groups

  • Living in a social group can provide benefits such as increased protection from predators.
  • Social groups can also provide benefits such as cooperative foraging.
  • One cost of living in a social group is increased competition for resources, such as food and mates.
  • Another cost is increased risk of disease transmission between group members.

Butterfly Mud-Puddling

  • Butterflies that mud-puddle in large groups will have a lower chance of being caught by birds compared to solitary mud-puddlers or butterflies in smaller groups.
  • Butterflies using the strategy of mud-puddling in large groups are using a tactic called the "dilution effect", where each individual has a lower probability of being selected as a target.

Archey’s Frog Mating System

  • Archey's frog is a species where the male invests more in parental care than the female.
  • This situation is an example of the Triver's Parental Investment Theory.
  • Since the male provides more care, females are likely to be the ones competing for mates, and males are the choosy sex.

Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls

  • Vervet monkey alarm calls use an ACOUSTIC mode of communication.
  • Acoustic signals can be used to transmit information over long distances, even in dense forest environments.
  • Acoustic signals can also be rapidly transmitted in response to a sudden threat.

Altruistic Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls

  • An alarm call is considered altruistic when the cost to the caller outweighs the benefit, and the call benefits relatives.

Mutualistic Relationship Between Cleaner Fish and Clients

  • Cleaner fish benefit by getting food from the ectoparasites they remove from client fishes.
  • Clients benefit from being rid of parasites, which can improve health.

Phoresy

  • Phoresy is a commensalistic relationship where one organism attaches to a larger organism for transport. 

Parasitic Copepods

  • Parasitic copepods lack organs like appendages, sensory organs, and a gut. These structures are lost during parasitic evolution where they may present a hinderance to parasitism.

Hookworm Migration

  • Hookworms enter the host through the skin.
  • Hookworms travel to the lungs through the bloodstream.
  • The hookworm migrates to the trachea during the larval stage.
  • Hookworms are swallowed from the trachea and migrate to the small intestine.

Echinococcus granulosus

  • E. granulosus is a cestode that causes hydatid disease.
  • The definitive host for E. granulosus is the dog.
  • E. granulosus reproduces asexually in sheep.
  • E. granulosus eggs are transmitted through feces at step A in Figure 7.
  • A simple method of controlling E. granulosus is deworming dogs.

Curtuteria australis and Profilicollis sp. Life Cycles

  • Both parasites in Figure 8 rely on transmission via predation to reach their bird host.
  • One common strategy used by predators to increase their transmission is host manipulation; when a host is infected with a parasite, it may alter its behavior in ways that make it easier for a predator to catch the host, increasing the chances of the parasite being transmitted.

Parasite Population Distribution

  • The typical distribution of parasites in a host population is an uneven pattern with a skewed distribution, where most individuals have few parasites, but a few individuals have a large number of parasites. This pattern is represented by option (i) in Figure 9.

Parasite Mortality

  • The graph that shows expected patterns of parasite-induced mortality is option (v) in Figure 10.
  • Option (v) shows that the number of parasites increases with fish size, but then starts to decrease as larger individuals are unable to tolerate the heavy parasite burdens.
  • Option (i) shows that parasites do not have a significant effect on mortality.

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