Japanese Nationalism and Militarism

• Chapter explores Japan's rapid progression from an isolated, undeveloped state to a significant political and military power in Asia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
• Industrialization, a strong military, and a tightly controlled political system contributed to Japan's success.
• Fundamental flaws in the system led to increasing military control, radical nationalism, and calls for empire.

Japanese Nationalism and Militarism

• Japan underwent major modernization in the late nineteenth century to become an ultranationalist state to protect it from foreign domination.
• Modernization placed economic stress on Japanese society, leading people to the military to control the state’s economy, government, and policies by the 1930s.
• An ultranationalist is a state's nationality superior to all others and involves racist and discriminatory beliefs.
• The Meiji Restoration was the creation of a new government of Japan after centuries of military government, in which Japan's Emperor held new powers and new, more modern systems of governance.
• Meiji Emperor reigned from 1867 to 1912, during which Japan underwent considerable reform, including the abolishment of feudalism, industrial development, and the creation of parliament and modern governing systems.
• The Meiji Emperor declared Japan's constitution, the first such legal document for the country, in 1889.
• The Meiji Constitution, the work of a group called the Privy Council, stated the Emperor of Japan was the head of state and a divine individual.
• Government authority originated from the Emperor, and government ministers were responsible to him alone.
• The military received independence in the constitution, reporting directly to the Emperor and holding two cabinet positions.
• All laws and cabinet decisions needed agreement by all ministers; if one disagreed, they could refuse to sign.
• Disagreement could cause government collapse, requiring new ministers or a compromise.
• It could lead to the military's increase in power because they could veto any decision and threaten to dissolve the government until their demands were met.
• The constitution created a parliament called the Diet, composed of an elected House of Representatives and an appointed House of Peers.
• The House of Peers was composed of nobility, high taxpayers, famous individuals, and special appointments made by the Emperor.
• The House of Representatives was elected by those with suffrage, which eventually included all men over 25.
• The House of Representatives could create and pass laws, which then had to be approved by the House of Peers.
• If approved, these laws went forward to the cabinet of ministers for consideration.
• If the cabinet approved, the law went forward to the Emperor and the Privy Council for consideration.
• Feudalism is the form of government in which nobility and their associates hold governing power.
• The Privy Council was a small government body of elites whose approval was required for laws and major political appointees.
• The Ministry of Education altered the national curriculum, emphasizing loyalty to the state, family, and community.
• Students were instructed to value Japan's special institution, the Emperor, his divinity, and aspects of Japan's history and culture.
• Emphasis on Japan’s uniqueness factored in the development of ultranationalism, also called radical nationalism, closely related to fascism.
• Offering oneself to the service of the state and protection of the Emperor was also encouraged.
• Teachers in training had to learn military drills, and by the 1920s, students throughout the country were also required to participate in these.
• This connection between the education system and the military later aided in the military's gaining popularity and control.

The Rise of Radical Nationalism

• Japan had a unique history and was never annexed to any European or American empire.
• Politicians and philosophers believed Japan was unique and had a special mission to use these qualities to lead the rest of Asia.
• Elements of radical nationalism opposed any policies that weakened the Emperor, exemplified by assassinations of opposing politicians.
• Radical nationalism led to racism towards other non-Japanese within Japan's Empire.

Growth of Militarism

• There was the belief that Japan had a special mission to secure its empire and dominate Asia, requiring a large navy and army.
• The military held cabinet positions and affected policies to ensure growth and maintenance.
• Economic crises in the late 1920s weakened the civilian government, and militarism became increasingly popular as it was tied to empire expansion for economic relief.
• Fascism is a governing philosophy that glorifies the state, war, and sacrificing oneself for the state.

Militarism and Foreign Policy

• Japan had a long history of militarism because pre-modern government was a military dictatorship.
• Industrialization strengthened Japan, allowing it to expand its empire.
• From the late nineteenth century, expansion focused on countries such as Korea, Russia, China and Taiwan.

Korea 1876-1905

• Japan had long had economic and political interests in the neighboring state of Korea.
• In 1876, Japan forced Korea to sign the Japan-Korea Treaty
• The document stated Korea was no longer a tributary state and Japanese citizens could not be arrested or tried in Korean courts.
• Korea could not restrict Japanese trade, and Japan was allowed to use three ports for exports.
• In 1884, supporters of Japan overthrew Korea's government in a coup d’état, but Japan's interference led to war with China.

First Sino-Japanese War 1894-5

• Tensions between Japan and the Qing Dynasty of China was fueled by assassinations and bans on Japanese imports leading to tension between Japan and the Qing Dynasty of China.
• China declared war due to essential takeover of Korea in August 1894.
• The war progressed rapidly for Japan was victorious with its modern military.
• In April of 1895, China requested Japan's terms for peace because they were losing.
• The Treaty of Shimonoseki decreed Korea's full independence from China, gave Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, and required China to pay a large indemnity to Japan.
• Russia, Germany, and France then declared the treaty had to be altered to accommodate their desires.
• Japan submitted to what was known as the Tripartite Intervention.
• In 1895 Russia took control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur, and Germany gained control of part of the Shantung Peninsula.

Russia

• Russian control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur in 1895 revealed Japan needed more development to protect itself from European states.
• Japan created a larger, better-armed military and industrialization continued at a rapid rate.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902

• Britain was concerned with Russian expansion in Asia and formed an alliance with Japan in 1902.
• The alliance dictated that Japan and Britain would aid each other militarily if either were at war with two or more countries.
• If either country was at war with only one other state, then the other would remain neutral.

Russo-Japanese War 1904-5

• Tensions between Russia and Japan increased between 1895 and 1904. With a fleet stationed off Port Arthur, Russia pressured Korea to grant mining and forestry rights.
• Because of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1899 and 1900, 200,000 Russian troops were stationed in Manchuria and Russia refused to withdraw the troops.
• In February 1904, Japan expelled Russia's ambassador and severed all relations with Russia. Attacked the Russian navy at Port Arthur and launched an invasion of Korea.
• By April, A Japanese army had entered Russian-controlled Manchuria, the Japanese navy had defeated the Port Arthur-based Russian navy and Port Arthur was under siege by land and sea.
• Battles led to Japan's victory which resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-Japanese War to a close in 1905.
• Japan then acquired international respect and authority.
• The USA agreed to Japanese control over Korea and Britain extended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

The First World War

• The First World War allowed Japan to demonstrate its strength directed at Germany and China.
• In 1914, Britain requested Japan's assistance against Germany and Tsingtao surrendered in November of that year.
• In 1915, while Europe was occupied by the war, Japan presented the Twenty-One Demands to China.
• China Delayed and Japan eventually modified the document. Anti-Japanese and anti-government riots erupted across the country.
• The USA and Britain limited Japan's control over China at the Paris Peace Conference.

Paris Peace Conference 1919

• Japan and other non-European countries demanded a clause against racial discrimination.
• The USA insisted that any statement mentioning racial equality could not be included because there was racial segregation.
• Japan wanted to keep Shantung Peninsula and Germany's former island empire in the Pacific, but it lasted for only a few years.
• To secure acquisitions and power, Japan instituted conscription and increased its navy.

Interwar Treaties

• Japan was one of the two most powerful states in the Pacific Ocean region.
• Both countries worked diplomatically to limit each other's military strength.
• Japan's military believed that Japan should be protected from foreign states.

Washington Naval Conference and treaties 1921-2

• Sharp reduction of armaments at the end of the First World War.
• Japan and Britain participated in discussions regarding naval limitations.
• The Five-Power Treaty halted large battleship construction for ten years.

London Naval Conference 1930

• Britain, the USA, Japan and other countries met in 1930 to review their earlier naval agreements.
• The navy's leadership insisted that Japan have a fleet that was 70 percent of either the US or British fleet.
• Japan achieved a 69.75 percent ratio on battleships while the government supported it, the navy objected and threatened to bring down the government.

Military Expansion

• Japan's army and navy were severely reduced during the 1920s, due to a series of economic crises.
• Various factions called for increased military spending to defend its interests in Machuria
• Increased spending was a way the government stimulated economic recovery from the Great Depression. Shipbuilding, steel and rubber, as well as other military-related industries, increased production.

Economic and Political Issues

• Economics were a driving force in Japan's domestic and foreign policies.
• Rapid cycles of growth and contraction occurred.
• When the economy expanded, landless peasants moved to the cities for factory work.
• When the economy was less successful, there was mass unemployment and further rural poverty.
• Failure to stabilize the system meant monopolie expanded to control economy.
• With the end of the feudal system, it was secured with intentional effort to industrialize to protect the Empire from the empire-building Europe.
• China and Korea were important for Japan’s economy because Japan’s cotton output was exported to them.

Zaibatsu

• Monopolies, called zaibatsu, began to form in the nineteenth century and rapidly expanded in the twentieth century.
• Zaibatsu increased in power as the country suffered economic crises in the late 1920s, absorbing smaller companies and banks.
• They worked to control the Diet to ensure economic policies favored them.

Social Stresses and Employment

• Industrialization severely affected the vast majority of people.
• Impoverished, rural families sent their children to cities to work.

The Great Depression

• In the late 1920s, the country entered economic decline due to earthquake, and bank failures.
• Japan relied largely on the US as a trading partner.
• Because of the Great Depression Japan's economy was greatly affected with a fall in GNP, exports, increase in unemployment, decline in agriculture,
• Unemployment and hunger led to political unrest.

Domestic Instability and Foreign Affairs

• The old governing system established by the Meiji Constitution had not led to stable economic conditions.
• The government was unable to create policies to address the Great Depression.
• China's instability and Japanese interests in Manchuria meant there was also a struggle over foreign policy.
• Japan’s domestic complexity was due to:
  • Military authorities had direct access to the Emperor.
  • The cabinet worked for the Emperor and could not be removed by theDiet.
  • All ministers had to agree to a policy, or it could not be enacted.
  • House of Representatives, was responsible for taxation and budgets.
  • The Privy Council and its genrō had direct access to the Emperor.

Communism

• Communism appealed to the millions of unemployed urban workers.
• The government could arrest citizens who wanted to change the govemment.

From Russian Empire to Soviet Union

• The army removed the Tsar leading to the first communist country .
• Communist parties and groups that sought communism grew in number and were a threat to many countries including Japan.

The Showa Restoration and Military Factions

• Conservative members society wanted full power to the Showa Emperor.
• The military also grew in number. They were divided among Tōseiha, or the Control Faction, and the Kōdōha wanting Emperor to gain full control.

Manchuria

• Manchuria declared independence in 1922 and was ruled by the warlord Zhang Zoulin.
• Japan's Kwantung Army officers supported Zhang because of economical and militaristic reasons
• Under Positive Policy towards China Japan would treat Manchuria special.