Podcast Beta
Questions and Answers
What distinguishes paracellular transport from transcellular transport in the nephron?
In the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), which transport proteins are primarily involved in the reabsorption of the Na+/Glc pathway?
What is the primary difference between obligatory and facultative water reabsorption in the nephron?
Which ions are primarily reabsorbed in the ascending limb of the nephron?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do aquaporins play in water reabsorption in the nephron?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is responsible for coordination and balance in the brain?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the inferior colliculus?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is primarily involved in the regulation of homeostasis?
Signup and view all the answers
Which part of the brainstem is responsible for vital functions such as heart rate and respiration?
Signup and view all the answers
What structure separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of tract connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
Signup and view all the answers
Which layer of the meninges is the toughest and outermost?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main function of transitional epithelium in the urinary system?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure in the kidney is primarily responsible for the filtration of blood?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following correctly describes the glomerular filtration process?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes the male urethra from the female urethra?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of membrane transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is an extension of the dura mater that separates the two cerebral hemispheres?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of receptors are responsible for detecting pain stimuli?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is NOT part of the autonomic nervous system pathways?
Signup and view all the answers
Identify the structure that serves as the main drainage vessel for venous blood from the brain.
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes rapidly adapting receptors from slowly adapting receptors?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following terms describes the division of the autonomic nervous system that governs fight or flight responses?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following receptors is primarily responsible for sensing changes in body position and movement?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is NOT part of the visual pathway in the eye?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Urinary System Anatomy and Histology
- Organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra
- Renal Capsule: Outermost layer, dense connective tissue, protects kidney
- Adipose Capsule: Fatty tissue, cushions kidney
- Renal Fascia: Outermost layer, anchors kidney to abdominal wall
- Renal Cortex: Outermost layer, contains renal corpuscles and proximal convoluted tubules
- Renal Medulla: Innermost layer, contains loops of Henle and collecting ducts
- Renal Papilla: Tip of the renal pyramid, where urine collects
- Renal Column: Extensions of cortex, separating renal pyramids
- Renal Pelvis: Funnel-shaped chamber, collects urine from renal pyramids
- Ureters: Muscular tubes, transport urine from kidneys to bladder
- Bladder: Expandable sac, stores urine
- Urethra: Tube that carries urine from bladder to exterior
- Transitional Epithelium: Special type of epithelium lining the ureters, bladder and urethra, allows for stretching and distension
- Trigone: Triangular region at the base of the bladder, defined by the openings of the ureters and urethra
- Male Urethra: Longer, passes through prostate gland, carries both urine and semen
- Female Urethra: Shorter, only carries urine
Nephron Anatomy and Histology
- Functions of Kidneys: Filter blood, regulate blood volume, produce hormones, maintain electrolyte balance
-
Blood Vessels:
- Renal Artery/Vein: Main blood supply to the kidney
- Segmental Arteries: Branches of the renal artery, supply different segments of the kidney
- Interlobar Arteries/Veins: Pass between renal pyramids
- Arcuate Arteries/Veins: Arch over the base of renal pyramids
- Cortical Radiate Arteries/Veins: Extend from arcuate arteries to the cortex
- Afferent Arteriole: Supplies blood to the glomerulus
- Glomerular Capillaries: Capillaries within the glomerulus, where filtration occurs
- Efferent Arteriole: Carries blood away from the glomerulus
- Peritubular Capillaries: Capillaries surrounding the renal tubules, involved in reabsorption and secretion
-
Renal Corpuscle:
- Components: glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
- Filtration Membrane: Endothelium of glomerular capillaries, basement membrane, podocyte foot processes
Nephron Physiology
- Renin: Hormone secreted by the kidney, influences blood pressure and fluid balance
- Glomerular Filtration: Movement of fluid from blood to the filtrate in the glomerulus
- Tubular Reabsorption: Movement of substances from the filtrate back to the blood
- Tubular Secretion: Movement of substances from the blood to the filtrate
- Glomerular Capillaries: Fenestrated, high pressure, involved in filtration
- Typical Capillaries: Continuous, low pressure, involved in exchange of nutrients and waste
-
Glomerular Filtration Process:
- Structures involved: Glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, filtration membrane
- GBHP (Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure): Pressure of blood in the glomerulus, forces fluid out
- CHP (Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure): Pressure of fluid in the Bowman's capsule, opposes filtration
- BCOP (Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure): Pressure due to proteins in blood, opposes filtration
- COP (Capsular Colloid Osmotic Pressure): Pressure due to proteins in the filtrate, minimal effect
- Net Direction of fluid flow: From glomerular capillaries to Bowman's capsule
Membrane Transport Review
- Active Transport: Requires energy, moves substances against their concentration gradient
- Passive Transport: Does not require energy, moves substances down their concentration gradient
-
Plasma Membrane Permeability:
- Small, non-polar gases (e.g., O2, CO2): Highly permeable
- Ions: Low permeability, require channels
- Large, polar molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids): Low permeability, require carrier proteins
-
Transporters:
- Channels: Passive transport, specific for certain ions
- Carrier Proteins: Passive or active transport, bind to specific molecules
- Pumps: Active transport, move substances against their concentration gradient
- Symporters: Active transport, move two substances in the same direction
- Antiporters: Active transport, move two substances in opposite directions
- Ion Arrangement: High concentration of Na+ outside the cell, high concentration of K+ inside the cell
Reabsorptive Pathways in the Nephron
- Paracellular Transport: Movement of substances between cells
- Transcellular Transport: Movement of substances across cells
- Na+/Glc Pathway in PCT: Symporter in apical membrane transports Na+ and glucose into the cell, facilitated diffusion in basolateral membrane transports glucose into the blood
- H20 in the PCT: Moves through aquaporins by osmosis, driven by the osmotic gradient created by Na+ reabsorption
- Lipid-soluble substances in the PCT: Diffuse through the cell membrane
- Cl-, Ca2+, K+ and urea in the PCT: Reabsorbed via passive diffusion or active transport
- Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ in the Ascending limb: Reabsorbed via different mechanisms, some active transport, some passive diffusion
- Na+, Cl- and Ca2+ in the early DCT: Reabsorbed via active transport
- Na+ and K+ in the late DCT/CD: Reabsorbed via active transport, regulated by aldosterone
- Aquaporin: Protein channel that allows water to pass through cell membranes
- Obligatory Water Reabsorption: Occurs in the PCT, driven by the osmotic gradient created by Na+ reabsorption
- Facultative Water Reabsorption: Occurs in the DCT and collecting duct, regulated by ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
Part 1 - Spinal Cord Anatomy
-
Structures on the Spinal Cord:
- Spinal nerve: Bundle of axons arising from the spinal cord
- Dorsal root ganglion: Swelling on the dorsal root, contains cell bodies of sensory neurons
- Anterior root of spinal nerve: Carries motor fibers from the spinal cord
- Lateral white column: White matter tract, carries sensory and motor fibers
- Anterior white column: White matter tract, carries sensory and motor fibers
- Posterior white column: White matter tract, carries sensory fibers
- Posterior gray horn: Grey matter, contains cell bodies of sensory neurons
- Anterior gray horn: Grey matter, contains cell bodies of motor neurons
- Anterior median fissure: Deep groove on the ventral surface
- Gray commissure: Connects the right and left halves of the grey matter
- Central canal: Fluid-filled space in the center of the spinal cord
- Posterior median sulcus: Shallow groove on the dorsal surface
- Sensory Tracts: Carry sensory information from the body to the brain
- Motor Tracts: Carry motor commands from the brain to the body
- Basic Reflex Arc: Sensory receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron (in spinal cord), motor neuron, effector
Part 2 - Brain Development
- Neurulation: Process of formation of the neural tube from the neural plate
- Cerebrospinal Fluid: Clear, colorless fluid, circulates in the brain and spinal cord
-
Ventricular System: System of interconnected cavities in the brain
- Lateral ventricles: Two largest cavities, located in the cerebral hemispheres
- Intraventricular foramen: Connects the lateral and third ventricles
- Third ventricle: Cavity in the diencephalon
- Aqueduct of the midbrain: Connects the third and fourth ventricles
- Fourth ventricle: Cavity in the brainstem
- Lateral aperture: Opening from the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space
- Central Canal: Fluid-filled space extending down the spinal cord
- Functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid: Protection, buoyancy, nutrient and waste transport
Part 3 - The Brainstem
-
Structures:
- Cerebellum: Posterior part of the brain
- Medulla Oblongata: Inferior part of the brainstem
- Pons: Middle part of the brainstem
- Midbrain: Superior part of the brainstem
-
Medulla Oblongata:
- Olive: Swelling on the ventral surface
- Pyramids: Two ridges on the ventral surface
- Decussation of pyramids: Crossing of motor fibers
- Inferior Olivary Nuclei: Relay information about movement to the cerebellum
- Pons: Relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
-
Midbrain:
- Thalamus: Relay center for sensory information
- Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis
- Cerebral Peduncle: Connects the cerebrum to the brainstem
- Superior Colliculus: Receives visual input, involved in eye movement
- Inferior Colliculus: Receives auditory input, involved in hearing
- Reticular Activating System (RAS): Network of neurons, regulates wakefulness and sleep
Part 4 - The Cerebellum and Diencephalon
- Cerebellum: Located below the cerebrum, plays a role in coordination, balance, and motor learning
- Thalamus: Relay center for sensory information, involved in regulating consciousness and alertness
- Hypothalamus: Responsible for maintaining homeostasis by controlling temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotions
- Pineal Gland: Located in the diencephalon, secretes melatonin, involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles
Part 5 - The Cerebrum
- Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions like language, memory, and reasoning
- Cerebral Cortex: Outermost layer of the cerebrum, divided into lobes
- Gyrus: Ridge on the surface of the cerebral cortex
- Sulcus: Groove on the surface of the cerebral cortex
-
Landmarks:
- Frontal lobe: Anterior lobe, responsible for voluntary movement, planning, and decision-making
- Parietal lobe: Posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensory perception, spatial awareness, and attention
- Occipital lobe: Posteriormost lobe, responsible for visual processing
- Temporal lobe: Lateral lobe, responsible for auditory processing, language, and memory
- Longitudinal fissure: Deep groove that separates the cerebral hemispheres
- Central Sulcus: Groove that separates the frontal and parietal lobes
- Precentral gyrus: Anterior to the central sulcus, primary motor cortex
- Postcentral gyrus: Posterior to the central sulcus, primary somatosensory cortex
- Parieto occipital sulcus: Groove that separates the parietal and occipital lobes
- Insula: Region of cortex buried deep within the lateral sulcus
- Lateral cerebral sulcus: Groove that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes
- Transverse fissure: Groove that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
-
Tracts:
- Projection tracts: Connect the cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain and spinal cord
- Commissural tracts: Connect the two cerebral hemispheres
- Association tracts: Connect different areas within the same hemisphere
- Primary Somatosensory Area: Located in the postcentral gyrus, receives sensory information from the body
- Primary Motor Area: Located in the precentral gyrus, controls voluntary movements
- Sensory Homunculus: Diagram that maps the body's representation in the primary somatosensory cortex
- Motor Homunculus: Diagram that maps the body's representation in the primary motor cortex
- Primary Gustatory Area: Located in the insula, processes taste information
- Primary Auditory Area: Located in the temporal lobe, processes auditory information
- Primary visual Area: Located in the occipital lobe, processes visual information
Part 6 - The Meninges, etc
-
Nervous System Organization:
- Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements
- Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions
- Enteric Nervous System: Controls digestive functions
- CNS: Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord)
- PNS : Peripheral Nervous System (Nerves outside of the CNS)
-
Spinal Meninges:
- Dura mater: Outermost, tough layer
- Arachnoid mater: Middle layer, web-like
- Pia mater: Innermost layer, delicate, adheres to the spinal cord
- Epidural space: Between dura mater and the vertebrae
- Subarachnoid space: Between arachnoid mater and pia mater, filled with cerebrospinal fluid
- Periosteal Layer of Dura Mater: Attached to the inner surface of the skull
- Meningeal Layer of Dura Mater: Inner layer of the Dura mater
- Superior Sagittal Sinus: Large venous sinus located within the dura mater
-
Dural Extensions:
- Falx cerebri: Partition between the two cerebral hemispheres
- Superior sagittal sinus: Dural venous sinus, collects blood from the brain
- Straight sinus: Dural venous sinus, collects blood from the cerebrum and cerebellum
- Tentorium: Partition between the cerebrum and cerebellum
- Falx cerebelli: Partition between the two cerebellar hemispheres
Part 1 - Introduction to Sensation
- Sensation: The process of detecting stimuli from the environment
- Perception: The process of interpreting and making sense of sensory information
- General Senses: Touch, pressure, temperature, pain
- Special Senses: Sight, hearing, smell, taste
- Somatic Sense: Sensation from the skin, muscles, and joints
- Visceral Sense: Sensation from internal organs
-
First Order Neuron: Sensory neuron that carries information from the sensory receptor to the CNS
- Type 1: Nerve endings of afferent fiber serves as the receptor
- Type 2: Separate receptor cell that synapses with the afferent fiber
- Type 3: Sensory neuron forms a synapse with another sensory neuron in ganglia
- Interoceptor: Sensory receptor that detects stimuli from internal organs
- Exteroceptor: Sensory receptor that detects stimuli from the external environment
- Proprioceptor: Sensory receptor that detects stimuli from the muscles, tendons, and joints
- Mechanoceptor: Detects mechanical stimuli, such as touch, pressure, and sound waves
- Thermoreceptor: Detects temperature changes
- Nociceptor: Detects pain
- Chemoreceptor: Detects chemical stimuli, such as taste and smell
- Photoreceptor: Detects light
- Osmoceptor: Detects changes in osmotic pressure
-
Adaptation: Decrease in the responsiveness of a sensory receptor to a constant stimulus
- Rapidly Adapting Receptor: Adapts quickly to a constant stimulus
- Slowly Adapting Receptor: Adapts slowly to a constant stimulus
-
Somatic Sensory Pathway:
- First order neuron: Carries information from the sensory receptor to the spinal cord or brainstem
- Second order neuron: Carries information from the spinal cord or brainstem to the thalamus
- Third order neuron: Carries information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
-
Somatic Motor Pathway:
- LMN (Lower Motor Neuron): Motor neuron that innervates a skeletal muscle
- Local Circuit Neuron: Interneuron in the spinal cord that coordinates activity of LMNs
- Upper Motor Neuron: Motor neuron that originates in the brain and projects to the spinal cord
- Basal Nuclei: Group of nuclei in the brain that help to plan and execute movements
- Direct Motor Pathway: Controls voluntary movements, originates from the cerebral cortex
- Indirect Motor Pathway: Controls involuntary movements, originates from the brainstem and cerebellum
-
Corticospinal Tract: Direct motor pathway, carries motor commands from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
- Anterior corticospinal tract: Controls muscles on the contralateral side of the body
- Lateral corticospinal tract: Controls muscles on the ipsilateral side of the body
Part 2 - Autonomic Nervous System
-
Organization of the Nervous System:
- PNS (Peripheral Nervouse System): Carries information to and from the CNS
- ANS (Autonomic Nervous System): Controls involuntary functions
- Sympathetic Branch: "Fight or flight" response
- Parasympathetic Branch: "Rest and Digest" response
- Afferent Division: Carries sensory information to the CNS
- Efferent Division: Carries motor commands from the CNS
-
Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic:
- Sympathetic: Increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, releases adrenaline
- Parasympathetic: Decreases heart rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, releases acetylcholine
-
Somatic vs Autonomic Pathways:
- Somatic: One motor neuron from the CNS to the skeletal muscle
- Autonomic: Two motor neurons, one from the CNS to the autonomic ganglion, and one from the autonomic ganglion to the target organ
- Thoracolumbar Division: Sympathetic nervous system, arises from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord
- Craniosacral Division: Parasympathetic nervous system, arises from the brain stem and sacral region of the spinal cord
-
Sympathetic Pathways:
- Ventral ramus: Branch of the spinal nerve that carries motor fibers
- Gray ramus communicans: Branch of the sympathetic chain that carries postganglionic fibers
- White ramus communicans: Branch of the sympathetic chain that carries preganglionic fibers
- Visceral Reflex: Reflexive response to stimuli from internal organs, controlled by the ANS
BIOL 1260 - Week 5 Study Guide
-
Eye Structures:
- Palpebral fissure: Opening between the eyelids
- Lateral commissure: Outer corner of the eye
- Medial commissure: Inner corner of the eye
- Lacrimal caruncle: Small, fleshy bump in the medial commissure
- Sclera: "White" of the eye, tough outer layer
- Pupil: Black opening in the center of the iris
-
Lacrimal Apparatus: Produces and drains tears
- Lacrimal gland: Produces tears
- Lacrimal ducts: Carry tears from the lacrimal gland to the eye
- Lacrimal sac: Collects tears
- Nasolacrimal duct: Drains tears into the nasal cavity
- Components of Tears: Water, electrolytes, mucus, lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)
- Extrinsic Eye Muscles: Six muscles that control eye movement
-
Internal Eye Layers:
- Fibrous Layer: Outermost layer, sclera and cornea
- Vascular Layer: Middle layer, choroid, ciliary body, iris
- Inner Layer: Innermost layer, retina
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
