Islamic World: Quran, Hadith, and Umma

• The major successors of the classical world include the Islamic world, Western Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and various Germanic kingdoms.

Quranic Significance

• The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be the direct word of God (Allah) as revealed to Muhammad.
• Muslims believe it to be the ultimate guide for moral and ethical conduct.

Definition of Hadith

• "Hadith" refers to the collections of sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, serving as a secondary source of law and guidance for Muslims after the Quran.

Definition of Umma

• "Umma" refers to the entire community of Muslims bound together by ties of religion.

Muhammad's Revelations

• Muhammad's revelations share common themes and figures with Judaism and Christianity, such as monotheism, prophets like Abraham and Moses, and moral teachings.
• Islam views these earlier traditions as precursors to the final and complete revelation of Islam.

The Five Pillars of Islam

• Shahada: Declaration of faith, professing that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.
• Salat: Performing ritual prayers five times a day, facing Mecca.
• Zakat: Giving alms to the poor and needy as a form of charity.
• Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramadan from dawn to sunset.
• Hajj: Making a pilgrimage to Mecca if physically and financially able.

Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties

• The Umayyad Dynasty expanded the Islamic empire significantly through military conquests, with a capital in Damascus.
• The Umayyads were criticized for their perceived favoritism towards Arab Muslims.
• The Abbasid Dynasty overthrew the Umayyads, shifting the capital to Baghdad and ushering in a golden age of Islamic culture, science, and philosophy.
• The Abbasids incorporated non-Arabs into positions of power and emphasized intellectual achievements.

Status of Women

• As Islamic society expanded into the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, the status of women changed.
• Islamic law granted women certain rights regarding marriage, divorce, and property ownership.
• Cultural practices from conquered lands sometimes led to greater restrictions on women's roles in public life, such as veiling and seclusion.

Flourishing Christianity in Western Europe

• The removal of "Roman" government in Western Europe did not stop Christianity, due to the Church providing institutional continuity and stability.
• The Church became a central authority, preserving aspects of Roman administration and culture.
• Christianity offered a unifying cultural and religious identity for the diverse populations of post-Roman Europe.

Germanic Leaders Gaining Legitimacy

• Germanic leaders gained political legitimacy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire through military success, conversion to Christianity, and alliance with the Church.
• Marrying into Roman aristocratic families and adopting Roman administrative practices also helped to legitimize their rule.

Battle of Tours/Poitiers

• The Battle of Tours (732 CE) was a significant event because it halted the northward advance of the Umayyad Caliphate from Spain into Francia.
• This victory for the Frankish army helped preserve Christian dominance in Europe and shaped the continent's subsequent political and cultural development.

Carolingian Takeover

• The Carolingians were able to take over from the Merovingians due to their military strength and political acumen.
• They served as powerful "mayors of the palace" and effectively ruled the Frankish kingdom, while the Merovingian kings became figureheads.
• Pepin the Short, with the support of the Pope, deposed the last Merovingian king and established the Carolingian dynasty.

Carolingian Improvements

• The Carolingians improved life in Europe through administrative reforms, standardization of laws, and promotion of education.
• Charlemagne divided his kingdom into counties ruled by counts, and he sent out royal envoys (missi dominici) to oversee local administration.
• Charlemagne supported the Church and promoted literacy through the establishment of schools.

Downfall of the Carolingian Dynasty

• The Carolingian dynasty declined due to internal divisions, weak leadership after Charlemagne, and external invasions by Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims.
• The Treaty of Verdun in 843 split the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, leading to fragmentation and decentralization.
• This collapse led to a period of feudalism, as local lords gained power and provided protection in the absence of a strong central government.

Feudalism and Manorialism

• Feudalism was a political and social system in which land was granted by lords to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty.
• Manorialism was an economic system centered on self-sufficient agricultural estates (manors), where peasants worked the land for the lord in exchange for protection and a portion of their produce.

Holy Roman Emperor

• The Church commonly assigned the title of 'Holy Roman Emperor' to Frankish and Germanic kings to gain their support and protection.
• This was a tool to legitimize the emperor's rule and reinforce the Church's authority, as well as to revive the idea of a unified Christian empire.

Papal Power

• Popes had significant power over secular rulers through the threat of excommunication, interdict (prohibiting religious services in a region), and the ability to legitimize or delegitimize rulers.
• The Pope also wielded considerable influence through the Church's vast landholdings and its role in education and culture.

Simony

• Simony is the buying or selling of ecclesiastical privileges, for example pardons, benefices, or offices.
• This became a problem in the 10th century as secular rulers and nobles often appointed unqualified or corrupt individuals to Church positions for financial gain.

Lay Investiture Crisis

• The Lay Investiture Crisis was a conflict between the Church and secular rulers over who had the authority to appoint Church officials (bishops).
• Pope Gregory VII challenged the traditional practice of lay investiture, asserting the Church's independence and authority in spiritual matters.

Great Schism of 1054

• The Great Schism of 1054 was the split between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) Churches, resulting from theological, political, and cultural differences.
• Key issues included the authority of the Pope, the use of icons, and differing liturgical practices.

Sui Dynasty Innovation

• The Sui dynasty was famous for the construction of the Grand Canal, which connected northern and southern China, facilitating trade and transportation.

Tang Dynasty Rise

• The Tang dynasty initially rose to power by overthrowing the Sui dynasty, capitalizing on widespread discontent caused by the Sui's oppressive rule and ambitious construction projects.
• Li Yuan, the founder of the Tang dynasty, was a former Sui official who gained support from disgruntled nobles and military leaders.

Flourishing Arts under Tang

• The arts flourished under the Tang dynasty due to its stable government, economic prosperity, and cultural openness.
• The Tang court supported artists, poets, and scholars, leading to advancements in painting, calligraphy, ceramics, and literature.

Flourishing Buddhism

• Buddhism flourished after the fall of the Han dynasty because it offered solace and spiritual guidance during a period of political instability and social upheaval.
• The Tang dynasty alternately embraced and persecuted Buddhist communities, depending on the emperor's personal beliefs and political considerations.
• Sometimes they embraced Buddhism for its perceived spiritual benefits and international connections, and sometimes persecuted in effort to confiscate wealth and assert state control.

Tang Dynasty Decline

• The Tang dynasty declined due to internal rebellions, such as the An Lushan Rebellion, and external pressures from nomadic groups.
• Weak leadership, factionalism within the court, and economic problems also contributed to the dynasty's downfall.

Song Dynasty Instability

• The Song dynasty was never completely stable due to constant threats from nomadic groups along its northern borders, such as the Liao and Jin dynasties.
• The Song government had to pay tribute to these groups to maintain peace, draining the empire's resources and weakening its military.

Agriculture Improvement

• Agriculture improved under the Song dynasty due to the introduction of new rice varieties from Southeast Asia, which allowed for multiple harvests per year.
• Advances in irrigation techniques and farming tools also increased agricultural productivity.

Civil Service Exam

• The civil service exam became more meritocratic and institutionalized from the start of the Tang to the end of the Song dynasty.
• The Tang dynasty expanded the exam system, but aristocratic connections still played a significant role in appointments.
• The Song dynasty further emphasized meritocracy, reducing the influence of aristocratic families and increasing the number of candidates selected through the exams.

Song Dynasty Collapse

• The Song dynasty collapsed due to a combination of factors, including military weakness, economic problems, and external invasions by the Mongols.
• The Mongols, under Genghis Khan and his successors, conquered northern China and eventually overthrew the Southern Song dynasty in 1279.

17 Article Constitution and Taika Reforms

• The 17 Article Constitution was a set of guidelines issued by Prince Shotoku in 604, emphasizing Confucian principles, moral behavior, and centralized government.
• The Taika Reforms were a series of political and social reforms implemented in 645, aimed at centralizing power, establishing a legal code, and reforming the land tenure system based on Chinese models.

Role of the Emperor

• The emperor in Japan played a dual role in terms of spirituality and politics.
• The emperor was considered a divine figure, descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu, and served as the symbolic head of state.
• The emperor's political power varied throughout history, with periods of strong leadership and periods where the emperor was a figurehead controlled by powerful clans or shoguns.

Fujiwara

• The Fujiwara were a powerful aristocratic clan in Japan that maintained their power through strategic marriages, controlling the imperial court, and monopolizing high government positions.
• They often married their daughters to emperors and exerted influence as regents for young or weak rulers.

Gempei War

• The Gempei War (1180-1185) was a conflict between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control of Japan.
• The Minamoto clan emerged victorious, establishing the Kamakura shogunate, a military government that dominated Japan for centuries.
• The results of the Gempei War marked the beginning of feudalism in Japan, with the rise of the samurai class and the establishment of a warrior-dominated society.