Introduction to the Human Body Chapter 1

The body's six levels of structural organization are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal
The eleven organ systems are integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.
Homeostasis is the body's internal balance
Feedback systems regulate homeostasis
Anatomical position is a standard reference point
Anatomical planes, sections, and directional terms are used to describe the body. Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, ventral/dorsal, medial/lateral, intermediate, ipsilateral/contralateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep, frontal, midsagittal, parasagittal, transverse, and oblique planes are some examples.
Body cavities house organs, and linings are found in the cavities. Major body cavities and organ containments need to be learned.

Common chemical elements and their importance in humans should be known.
Biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) functions need to be identified and described.

The four basic types of tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous) and their characteristics.
Cell junctions (gap junctions, hemidesmosomes, desmosomes, adherens junctions, and tight junctions) structure and functions need to be understood.
Types of epithelium, their locations, structures, and functions in the human body are required.
Functional classifications of exocrine glands (merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine) are needed.
Different connective tissue types, locations, structures, and functions need to be known.

Epidermal layers (stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum) and their characteristics.
Dermis layers
Papillary and reticular regions of the dermis
Types of skin cells (keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile epithelial cells).
Hair (lanugo, vellus, terminal), gland types (sebaceous, sudoriferous, ceruminous), and nails (hyponychium, eponychium, lunula, nail root, nail bed, nail body, free edge) and their functions need to be understood.
The regulation of body temperature, protection, sensation, excretion, and vitamin D synthesis by the skin.
Epidermal and deep wound healing.

Functions of the skeletal system (support, protection, movement, mineral homeostasis, blood cell production, triglyceride storage).
The structure and functions of the parts of a long bone (epiphyses, metaphysis, diaphysis, articular cartilage, endosteum, medullary cavity, periosteum), must be learned.
Cellular composition of bone tissue and the functions of each cell type.

Surface markings on bones, including fissures, foramina, fossa, sulci, meatus, condyles, facets, heads, crests, epicondyles, spinous processes, trochanters, tubercles, tuberosities and their functions need to be learned.
The bones of the axial skeleton and their markings.
Differences between cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.
Vertebral column structure and functions.
Foramina, spinous process, transverse processes, articular facets, intervertebral discs, nucleus pulposus, annulus fibrosus.

Bones, key surface markings, and their functional features of the appendicular skeleton.
The primary differences between female and male pelves.
Important features such as False pelvis, pelvic brim, pubic arch, greater sciatic notch, pelvic outlet.

The structural classification of joints (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial), and functional classifications.

Four special properties of muscular tissue (excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity).
Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fibers (fascia, tendon, epimysium, perimysium, endomysium , myofibril, sarcolemma, transverse tubules, sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibrils, sarcomeres).
Differences between thick and thin filaments.
Bands and zones within a sarcomere.
Functions of skeletal muscle proteins (contractile, regulatory, structural).
Sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
Length-tension relationship in skeletal muscles (see Figure 10.8).
Muscle action potentials arising at the neuromuscular junction (see Figure 10.9 + 10.7)
Methods of ATP production in muscle fibers (Creatine phosphate, Anaerobic glycolysis, Aerobic respiration)
Isotonic (concentric and eccentric), and isometric contractions.
Types of muscle fibers (Slow oxidative, Fast oxidative-glycolytic, Fast glycolytic)

Definitions of origin and insertion
Types of fascicle arrangements and their relation to strength and range of motion (Parallel, fusiform, circular, triangular, unipennate, bipennate, multipennate).
Definitions of prime mover, antagonist, synergist, and fixator
Features of Naming skeletal muscles

Organization of the nervous system (CNS and PNS)
Functions of the nervous system (sensory, motor, integrative)
Structures of neurons (dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, synaptic end bulbs).
Structural classifications of neurons (multipolar, bipolar, unipolar)
Myelination , its functional advantage
Gray and white matter distinction

Protective structures and gross anatomical features of the spinal cord (vertebral column, meninges, dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater, subarachnoid space, conus medullaris, denticulate ligaments, cauda equina).
Internal spinal anatomy (gray matter horns: posterior (dorsal), anterior (ventral), white matter columns: anterior, posterior lateral, central canal).
Number and location of spinal nerve pairs

Major parts of the brain (cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum).
Brain protection (cranium, cranial meninges: dura mater periosteal + meningeal, arachnoid mater, pia mater).
CSF function.
Brainstem structures (medulla, pons, midbrain)
Diencephalon structures (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus).
Cerebral cortex functions (primary somatosensory, primary gustatory, primary visual, primary auditory, primary motor, Broca’s areas).

Comparison of somatic and autonomic nervous systems (sensory input, control of motor output, motor neuron pathways, neurotransmitters and hormones, effectors, responses).
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Autonomic plexuses
Sympathetic and parasympathetic responses
Cholinergic and adrenergic receptors (nicotinic, muscarinic, alpha, beta).
Receptor agonists and antagonists.
Baroreflex and its relationship to blood pressure and muscle sympathetic nerve activity.

Definition of sensation and the process of sensation (stimulation of sensory receptor, transduction of stimulus, generation of nerve impulses, integration of sensory input).
Classification of sensory receptors (exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors)