Introduction to Sociology & Social Theory

• Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction.
• It examines the structures, institutions, and processes that shape human behavior and social life.
• Sociologists explore a wide range of topics, including social inequality, culture, social change, and social institutions.

Social Theory

• Social theory provides frameworks for understanding and analyzing social phenomena.
• Classical sociological theorists include Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim.
• Marx focused on class conflict and the role of economic structures in shaping society.
• Weber emphasized the importance of cultural ideas and rationalization in the development of modern society.
• Durkheim explored social solidarity and the ways in which societies maintain cohesion.
• Contemporary social theory encompasses diverse perspectives, such as feminism, critical race theory, and postmodernism.
• These theories offer insights into power relations, identity, and social change.

Cultural Norms

• Cultural norms are shared rules and expectations that govern behavior within a society or group.
• They define what is considered acceptable or appropriate in specific situations.
• Norms can be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as customs and traditions.
• Folkways are everyday customs that carry relatively little moral significance.
• Mores are norms that are considered essential to the stability of society.
• Taboos are norms that are so strongly ingrained that even the thought of violating them evokes revulsion.
• Cultural norms vary across societies and can change over time.

Race and Ethnicity

• Race is a social construct that categorizes people based on perceived physical differences.
• Ethnicity refers to shared cultural heritage, language, religion, and traditions.
• Racial and ethnic identities are often sources of both solidarity and conflict.
• Racism is the belief that one race is superior to others, which can lead to discrimination and inequality.
• Prejudice is a negative attitude or belief about a particular group.
• Discrimination is the unequal treatment of individuals based on their group membership.
• Institutional racism refers to systemic practices and policies that perpetuate racial inequality.

Deviance and Crime

• Deviance is behavior that violates social norms and expectations.
• Crime is behavior that violates laws and is subject to formal punishment.
• Sociological theories of deviance include functionalism, strain theory, social learning theory, and labeling theory.
• Functionalist perspectives examine how deviance can contribute to social order by reinforcing norms and values.
• Strain theory suggests that deviance arises when individuals lack legitimate means to achieve socially approved goals.
• Social learning theory argues that deviance is learned through interactions with others.
• Labeling theory focuses on how the application of labels can influence individuals' behavior and self-identity.
• Crime rates vary across societies and are influenced by factors such as poverty, inequality, and social disorganization.

Sociological Research Methods

• Sociologists use a variety of research methods to study social phenomena.
• Quantitative methods involve the collection and analysis of numerical data.
• Surveys are used to gather information from a large sample of people through questionnaires or interviews.
• Experiments are used to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Statistical analysis is used to identify patterns and relationships in quantitative data.
• Qualitative methods involve the collection and analysis of non-numerical data, such as text, images, and observations.
• Interviews are used to gather in-depth information from individuals about their experiences and perspectives.
• Ethnography involves immersing oneself in a particular social setting to observe and understand social life.
• Content analysis is used to analyze texts and media to identify patterns and themes.
• Research ethics are important considerations in sociological research, including informed consent, confidentiality, and protection of vulnerable populations.