Introduction to Sociology: Core Concepts

• Sociology studies human society and social behavior, examining social structures, interactions, and institutions.
• It seeks to understand how societies are organized and how people interact within them.
• Sociologists employ empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop knowledge about social order and change.

Core Concepts

• Social structure refers to patterned social arrangements in society.
• These arrangements emerge from and determine the actions of individuals.
• Social interaction is the process through which people act and react in relation to others.
• Social institutions are established norms and subsystems supporting a society's survival.
• Examples of social institutions are family, education, government, and religion.
• Culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, norms, language, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.
• Socialization is the process where individuals learn and internalize societal norms and values.

Major Sociological Perspectives

• Functionalism views society as interconnected parts working together to maintain stability and social order.
• It emphasizes the functions of social structures and institutions in maintaining social equilibrium.
• Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton are key figures in functionalism.
• Conflict theory focuses on social inequalities and power struggles within society.
• It examines how dominant groups control resources and maintain power through coercion and manipulation.
• Karl Marx, Max Weber, and C. Wright Mills are key figures in conflict theory.
• Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the role of symbols and language in shaping social interaction and meaning.
• It focuses on how individuals create and interpret meaning through interactions with others.
• George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, and Erving Goffman are key figures in symbolic interactionism.

Research Methods

• Surveys collect data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews.
• They gather information about attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
• Surveys can be quantitative (close-ended questions) or qualitative (open-ended questions).
• Experiments investigate cause-and-effect relationships under controlled conditions.
• They often test hypotheses about social behavior.
• Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or natural setting.
• Ethnography studies a social group or culture by immersing oneself in the group's daily life.
• It involves observation, interviews, and analysis of documents and artifacts.
• Ethnography provides detailed insights into social processes and cultural meanings.
• Content analysis analyzes texts, images, and other forms of communication to identify patterns and themes.
• It studies media representations, political discourse, and cultural trends.
• Content analysis can be quantitative (counting word/image frequency) or qualitative (interpreting text meaning).
• Secondary data analysis analyzes existing data collected by other researchers or organizations.
• This includes census data, government statistics, and historical records.
• Secondary data analysis is cost-effective and allows studying large-scale social trends.

Key Sociological Thinkers

• Émile Durkheim focused on social solidarity, division of labor, and the study of suicide.
• He introduced the concept of social facts, external forces that shape individual behavior.
• Karl Marx analyzed capitalism, class conflict, and the exploitation of workers.
• He advocated for a classless society and the overthrow of capitalism.
• Max Weber studied bureaucracy, rationalization, and the Protestant ethic's influence on capitalism.
• He emphasized verstehen (interpretive understanding) in sociological research.
• George Herbert Mead developed symbolic interactionism, emphasizing the role of language and symbols in social interaction.
• Mead argued that the self is a social construct that emerges through interaction with others.

Social Stratification

• Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society.
• This arrangement is based on wealth, income, occupation, education, and other factors.
• Systems of stratification include caste systems, class systems, and meritocracies.
• Social mobility refers to the ability to move up or down the social hierarchy.

Social Inequality

• Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities in society.
• It can be based on race, ethnicity, gender, class, and sexual orientation.
• Social inequality manifests in disparities in income, wealth, education, healthcare, and political power.

Deviance and Social Control

• Deviance is behavior that violates social norms and expectations.
• Social control includes mechanisms used to regulate behavior and maintain social order.
• Formal sanctions (e.g., laws, police) and informal sanctions (e.g., social disapproval, ostracism) are examples of social control.
• Theories of deviance include strain theory, social learning theory, and labeling theory.

Social Change

• Social change refers to the transformation of culture, social institutions, and social structure over time.
• It can be caused by technological innovation, demographic shifts, and social movements.
• Social movements are organized efforts to promote or resist social change.

Globalization

• Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of societies around the world.
• It is driven by trade, technology, and migration.
• Globalization has both positive and negative consequences, including economic growth, cultural exchange, and increased inequality.

Demography and Urbanization

• Demography is the study of population size, composition, and change.
• It includes the analysis of birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, and age structure.
• Urbanization is the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities.
• Urbanization can lead to social problems, such as overcrowding, poverty, and pollution.
• Urbanization also provides opportunities for economic growth and cultural innovation.

Family and Education

• Family is a social institution uniting individuals into cooperative groups for raising children and providing care.
• Family structures vary across cultures and over time.
• Education is a social institution transmitting knowledge, skills, and values to members of society.
• It plays a role in socialization, social mobility, and economic development.

Religion

• Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred.
• It provides meaning and purpose, social cohesion, and social control.
• The sociological study of religion focuses on its social functions and impacts.

Economy and Work

• The Economy is the social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
• Work is activity that people do to earn a living or contribute to society.
• The sociological study of work examines job satisfaction, inequality, and the impact of technology.

Politics and Government

• Politics is the process by which power is distributed and decisions are made in society.
• Government is the formal organization with the authority to make and enforce laws.
• The sociological study of politics examines political participation, social movements, and the role of the state.

Health and Medicine

• Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being.
• Medicine is the social institution that focuses on combating disease and improving health.
• The sociological study of health and medicine examines access to healthcare, health disparities, and the social construction of illness.

Overview of sociology, the study of human society and social behavior. Key concepts include social structure, interaction, institutions, culture and socialization. Sociologists use empirical investigation and critical analysis in their study.