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Questions and Answers
What predicts no sex differences in domains where the sexes faced similar adaptive challenges?
Evolutionary psychology
What do men strive to offer to attract women?
Men will offer internal resources to attract women.
False
Testosterone is the male sex hormone that influences masculine ______________ and other traits.
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Match the following hormones with their corresponding gender:
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What is the term for mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics?
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Define self-esteem.
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What is the Self-Serving Bias?
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Evolutionary Psychology is the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection.
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Cultural diversity confirms that much of our __________ is socially programmed, not hardwired.
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Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
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Social psychology focuses more on individuals and ____________. Compared with personality psychology, social psychology does more experimentation.
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When does correlation indicate a relationship but not necessarily one of cause and effect?
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The theory in social psychology consists of proven facts.
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What is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the scientific method?
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Match the following decades with the key events in social psychology: 1. 1940s 2. 1970s 3. 1990s-Present
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What is the mediating path located in the cleft between the brain hemispheres behind the eyes that helps stitch together the sense of self?
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Random assignment in experiments ensures that all participants have an equal chance of being in a given condition.
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What is the term for beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information?
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Self and Culture: ______ prioritizes one's own goals over group goals and defines one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. On the other hand, Collectivism gives priority to the goals of one’s group and defines one’s identity accordingly.
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Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
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What is the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon other's behavior?
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What is the main difference between dispositional attribution and situational attribution?
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Mood linkage refers to the phenomenon where individuals synchronize or share their moods and emotions in group settings.
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What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) assess?
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Explicit attitudes tend to linger and change only through practice.
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Men are __ times more likely to commit suicide and be murdered.
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What is benevolent sexism?
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Match the following social phenomena with their descriptions:
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In the final phase of the research, what type of tasks required the two groups to work together?
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Who posed as a street musician at a busy Washington, D.C. subway station in 2007?
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What was Solomon Eliot Asch's aim in his conformity experiments?
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Participants in Milgram's obedience experiments were instructed to administer actual electric shocks to another person.
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The ability to delay gratification in the experiments conducted by Walter Mischel was not found to be a predictor of future life success.
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Define prejudice.
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In the Halo Effect social experiment, it was found that the ability to wait for ______ was not only an essential skill for success but also something that forms early on and lasts throughout life.
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Match the following ethical considerations with their definitions:
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Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information, and sometimes ____.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Study Notes
Social Psychology
- Social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view and affect one another.
- It is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
- Social psychology focuses more on individuals and does more experimentation compared to sociology.
What is Social Psychology?
- Social psychology is a young science, with the first experiments reported barely over a century ago.
- The first social psychology texts did not appear until approximately 1900.
- Social psychology studies our thinking, influences, and relationships by asking questions that have intrigued us all.
Social Psychology’s Big Ideas
- Social Thinking: We construct our social reality.
- Social Influences: Shape our behavior.
- Social Relations: Social behavior is biologically rooted.
- Social Neuroscience: An interdisciplinary field that explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviors.
Research Methods in Social Psychology
- Forming and Testing Hypotheses
- Theory: A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.
- Hypothesis: An educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method.
- Classification: Laboratory research, Field research, and Correlational research.
- Methods: Experimental research, Correlational research, and Survey.
Correlational Research
- Correlational research indicates a relationship, but that relationship is not necessarily one of cause and effect.
- Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures the degree of relationship between two factors, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0.
- Strength: Correlational research tends to occur in real-world settings where we can examine factors such as race, gender, and social status.
- Weakness: Ambiguity of the results.
Experimental Research
- Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.
- Control: Manipulating variables to eliminate extraneous factors.
- Independent Variables: The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.
- Dependent Variable: The experimental factor that the independent variable influences.
Ethics of Experimentation
- Mundane Realism: The degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.
- Experimental Realism: The degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants.
- The Ethics of Experimentation: Concerns about deception, informed consent, and debriefing.
The Self in a Social World
- Spotlight Effect: The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are.
- Illusion of Transparency: The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.
- Self-Concept: What we know and believe about ourselves.
- Self-Schema: Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information.
Self and Culture
- Individualism: Giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes.
- Collectivism: Giving priority to the goals of one’s group and defining one’s identity accordingly.
- Culture and Self-Esteem: In collectivist cultures, self-esteem tends to be malleable, whereas in individualistic cultures, self-esteem is more personal and less relational.### Self-Esteem and Motivation
- Self-esteem refers to a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth, which is the sum of all our self-views across various domains.
- High self-esteem can motivate people to achieve their goals and sustain hope through difficult times, but it can also lead to narcissism, which involves an inflated sense of self.
- Self-efficacy is a sense of competence and effectiveness, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth.
- People with strong feelings of self-efficacy are more persistent, less anxious, and less depressed.
Self-Serving Bias and Illusions
- Self-serving bias is the tendency to perceive oneself favorably, which can lead to unrealistic optimism and false consensus (overestimating the commonality of one's opinions and behaviors).
- Illusory optimism is the tendency to believe oneself immune to misfortune, while defensive pessimism is the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action.
- False uniqueness is the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and desirable behaviors.
Genes, Culture, and Gender
- Natural selection is the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations.
- Evolutionary psychology studies the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection.
- Culture is the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
- Epigenetics is the study of the expression of genes across different environments.
Gender Differences and Similarities
- Compared to males, the average female has more body fat, less muscle mass, and is shorter and lighter.
- Compared to females, the average male is slower to enter puberty, but quicker to die, and is more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD and to commit suicide.
- Gender roles vary across cultures and have changed over time.
Culture and Behavior
- Culture amplifies biological differences, such as the sex difference in physical aggression, through norms that expect males to be tough and females to be kinder and gentler.
- Peer-transmitted culture plays a significant role in shaping children's values and behaviors.
- People often choose and create their own situations, which affect how they respond to them.
Social Beliefs and Judgments
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Our preconceptions guide how we perceive and interpret information, and we respond to the world based on our construal of reality.
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We perceive our social worlds through our beliefs and expectations, which influence how we judge and explain them.### Perceiving and Interpreting Events
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Our perceptions and understanding of others can be influenced by biases and logical flaws, but we are still accurate most of the time.
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Our first impressions of others are often correct, and cultures shape people to act in ways that perpetuate their cultures.
Culture and Gender
- A culture cycle is a process where people create cultures and adapt to them, and cultures shape people to act in ways that perpetuate their cultures.
- Gender roles are a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females.
Political Perceptions
- Political perceptions can vary greatly depending on individual perspectives, and even simple stimuli can be perceived differently by different people.
Constructing Memories
- Our memories are reconstructed when we retrieve them, and are influenced by our current feelings and expectations.
- Remedies for overconfidence include prompt feedback and considering disconfirming information.
Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts
- Heuristics are thinking strategies that enable quick and efficient judgment.
- The Representativeness Heuristic is the tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if they resemble a typical member.
- The Availability Heuristic is a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things based on their availability in memory.
How Do We Judge Our Social Worlds?
- According to Daniel Kahneman, we have two brain systems: System 1 (intuitive, automatic, and fast) and System 2 (deliberate, controlled, and slower).
- Priming refers to activating particular associations in memory, which can influence our social judgments.
- Embodied cognition is the mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments.
Counterfactual Thinking
- Counterfactual thinking involves imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.
- The more significant and unlikely the event, the more intense the counterfactual thinking.
Limits of Intuition
- Overconfidence phenomenon: the tendency to be more confident than correct.
- Heuristics can lead to biases and errors in judgment.
- Illusory correlation: the perception of a relationship where none exists.
Moods and Judgments
- Our moods infuse our judgments, and our feelings can influence our social judgments.
- Perspective and situational awareness, as well as cultural differences, can influence attribution error.
Social Beliefs and Judgments
- Our judgments of people depend on how we explain their behavior.
- Attribution theory helps us understand how people explain others' behaviors.
- Self-fulfilling prophecy: beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment.
Inferring Traits
- Spontaneous trait inference: an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior.
- Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences.
Conformity
- Conformity: a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.
- Obedience: a type of compliance involving acting in accord with a direct order or command.
- Sherif's studies of norm formation showed that group norms can emerge over time.
Chameleon Effect
- The chameleon effect is a non-verbal form of imitation that occurs in social interactions.
- It can contribute to the establishment of rapport and positive social interactions.
Mass Hysteria
- Mass hysteria is a situation where a group of people collectively experiences physical symptoms, emotional disturbances, or irrational behaviors.
- It is characterized by the rapid spread of symptoms within a community, often triggered by psychological or social factors.
Conversion Disorder
- Conversion disorder is a condition characterized by the presence of neurological symptoms that cannot be explained by a known medical or neurological disorder.
- It is often related to social contagion, where individuals within a group influence each other.
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Description
Learn about the basics of social psychology, including how values differ across time and cultures, and the major theories of social identity. Explore the differences between European and American social psychology.
