Introduction to Science

• Science employs a systematic, organized methodology to decipher the natural world via observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• The scientific process includes formulating hypotheses, rigorously testing them, and drawing conclusions based on gathered evidence.
• Science aims to define overarching laws and principles that both explain and predict natural occurrences.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences delve into the physical world, including fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science.
• Social sciences explore human behavior and societies, covering disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics, and political science.
• Formal sciences, like mathematics and logic, utilize abstract systems and reasoning to investigate and establish concepts.

Scientific Method

• The scientific method is a system for gaining knowledge through observation, hypothesis creation, experimentation, data analysis, and forming a conclusion.
• Observation entails noticing and describing phenomena.
• Hypothesis formulation involves creating a testable explanation for an observation.
• Experimentation includes designing and conducting controlled tests to collect data.
• Data analysis means interpreting the data to see if it supports or refutes the hypothesis.
• A conclusion involves making inferences and assessing the hypothesis's validity.

Physics

• Physics studies matter, energy, and their interactions.
• Classical mechanics studies the motion of macroscopic objects influenced by forces.
• Thermodynamics examines heat, work, and energy transfer within physical systems.
• Electromagnetism investigates interactions between electric charges and magnetic fields.
• Quantum mechanics studies the behavior of matter and energy at atomic and subatomic levels.
• Relativity describes the relationship between space, time, gravity, and the universe on a large scale.

Chemistry

• Chemistry studies matter, its properties, composition, structure, and transformations.
• Atoms are matter's basic building blocks, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Elements consist of only one type of atom.
• Compounds are formed by chemically combining two or more elements.
• Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms and molecules.
• Organic chemistry studies carbon-containing compounds essential to life.
• Biochemistry explores chemical processes within living organisms.

Biology

• Biology studies living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.
• Cell biology studies the structure and function of cells, the fundamental units of life.
• Genetics studies heredity and the variation of inherited traits.
• Evolution explains how populations of organisms change over time.
• Ecology investigates interactions between organisms and their environment.
• Microbiology studies microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• Botany is the study of plants.
• Zoology is the study of animals.

Earth Science

• Earth science studies Earth and its environment, including its structure, composition, processes, and history.
• Geology studies Earth's solid materials, structures, and processes.
• Meteorology studies the atmosphere and weather patterns.
• Oceanography studies the oceans and marine environments.
• Environmental science examines interactions between humans and the environment.
• Paleontology studies prehistoric life through fossil analysis.
• Astronomy studies celestial objects and phenomena.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; it incorporates facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
• A scientific law is a descriptive statement or equation which reliably predicts events under specific conditions.
• Theories explain the 'why' of phenomena, while laws describe 'what' happens.

Technology

• Technology applies scientific knowledge for practical purposes.
• Engineering designs and constructs structures, machines, and systems using scientific principles.
• Medicine uses scientific knowledge to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases.
• Computer science studies computation and information processing.

Measurement and Units

• Measurement assigns numerical values to physical quantities.
• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard measurement system in science.
• SI base units are the meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity.

Data Analysis

• Data analysis involves organizing, summarizing, and interpreting data to draw conclusions.
• Statistics is used to analyze and interpret data.
• Descriptive statistics summarize a data set's characteristics.
• Inferential statistics make inferences and generalizations about a population based on a sample.

Experimental Design

• Experimental design plans and conducts experiments to test hypotheses and collect data.
• Control groups provide a baseline for comparison.
• Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher.
• Dependent variables are measured to determine the impact of the independent variable.
• Randomization helps to reduce bias and ensure valid results.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific Communication involves sharing research findings with scientists and the public.
• Peer-reviewed journals publish original research, which has been reviewed by experts.
• Conferences and presentations allow scientists to share work and discuss ideas.
• Science education enhances comprehension and appreciation of science for students and the public.

Ethics in Science

• Ethics in science requires adhering to honesty, integrity, and responsibility.
• Plagiarism presents someone else's work as one's own.
• Fabrication involves inventing data or results.
• Falsification manipulates research materials, equipment, or processes, creating misleading results.
• Conflicts of interest must be disclosed and managed to maintain objectivity.

History of Science

• The history of science traces the development of scientific knowledge over time.
• Ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, contributed significantly to science and mathematics.
• The Scientific Revolution (16th-17th centuries) was a period of major scientific advancements.
• Key figures include Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Charles Darwin, and Marie Curie.

Future of Science

• The future of science will be shaped by discoveries and technological innovations.
• Interdisciplinary research will be vital for addressing complex scientific challenges.
• Advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence could revolutionize society.
• Space exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life are important scientific goals.