Introduction to Science

Core Principles

• Empirical evidence supports scientific claims through observable and measurable data.
• Testability is required in scientific hypotheses via experimentation or observation.
• Falsifiability dictates a scientific theory can be proven wrong.
• Objectivity ensures scientific inquiry remains free from personal bias and subjective interpretations.
• Reproducibility means experimental results can be replicated by other researchers.
• Skepticism subjects scientific claims to critical evaluation and scrutiny.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical world and natural phenomena.
• Physics studies matter, energy, space, time, and interactions.
• Chemistry examines composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
• Biology studies living organisms, their structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution.
• Earth science investigates the Earth's structure, composition, processes, and history.
• Social sciences study human behavior, society, and culture.
• Psychology explores the human mind, behavior, and mental processes.
• Sociology studies social behavior, institutions, and structures.
• Economics analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
• Anthropology examines human societies, cultures, and their development.
• Formal sciences use formal systems to explore abstract concepts.
• Mathematics studies numbers, quantities, structures, and relationships.
• Logic examines the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
• Computer science involves the study of computation, algorithms, and information.
• Applied sciences apply scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
• Engineering uses scientific principles to design and build structures, machines, and systems.
• Medicine applies scientific knowledge to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases.
• Agriculture uses scientific techniques to improve crop production and animal husbandry.

Scientific Method

• Observation involves identifying a phenomenon or problem for investigation.
• Hypothesis involves formulating a testable explanation for the observed phenomenon.
• Prediction involves making specific predictions based on the hypothesis.
• Experimentation involves designing and conducting experiments to test predictions.
• Data analysis involves analyzing data collected during the experiment to determine if it supports or refutes the hypothesis.
• Conclusion involves drawing conclusions based on the data analysis, determining if the hypothesis is supported or refuted.
• Communication involves sharing the results of the scientific investigation through publications and presentations.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• Scientific theory is a substantiated explanation of the natural world based on repeatedly confirmed facts via observation and experimentation.
• Scientific law is a statement describing an observed regularity or pattern in nature.
• Theories explain why phenomena occur, and laws describe what occurs.

Measurement and Units

• Measurement assigns numerical values to physical quantities.
• Units are standard quantities used to express measurements.
• SI Units (International System of Units) is the standard system of units in science.
• Length measurement is meter (m).
• Mass measurement is kilogram (kg).
• Time measurement is second (s).
• Temperature measurement is kelvin (K).
• Amount of substance measurement is mole (mol).
• Electric current measurement is ampere (A).
• Luminous intensity measurement is candela (cd).

Scientific Tools and Equipment

• Microscopes are for viewing small objects and structures.
• Telescopes are for observing distant objects in space.
• Spectrometers are for analyzing light properties.
• Balances are for measuring mass.
• Graduated cylinders are for measuring volume.
• Thermometers are for measuring temperature.
• Computers are for data analysis, modeling, and simulation.

Errors and Uncertainties

• Error represents the difference between measured and true values.
• Random error includes unpredictable variations in measurements causing data scattering.
• Systematic error includes consistent errors causing measurements to deviate in a direction.
• Uncertainty refers to the range of values where the true value likely lies.

Data Representation

• Data can be represented in various forms for analysis and interpretation.
• Tables consist of organized data in rows and columns.
• Graphs are visual representations of data, including bar graphs, line graphs, and scatter plots.
• Charts are diagrams representing data, like pie charts and flowcharts.
• Equations are mathematical expressions describing relationships between variables.

Statistics in Science

• Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data.
• Descriptive statistics summarize and describe data.
• Mean is the average value of a data set.
• Median is the middle value in a data set.
• Standard deviation measures the spread or dispersion of data.
• Inferential statistics make inferences and draw conclusions about populations based on sample data.
• Hypothesis testing is a statistical method to determine sufficient evidence to reject a null hypothesis.
• Regression analysis statistically models the relationship between two or more variables.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific communication shares research findings and advances scientific knowledge
• Scientific papers are formal reports describing scientific investigation methods, results, and conclusions.
• Peer review subjects scientific papers to expert scrutiny before publication.
• Scientific conferences are meetings where scientists present research and exchange ideas.
• Scientific journals publish peer-reviewed scientific papers.

Ethics in Science

• Scientific ethics adheres to moral principles and professional standards in scientific research.
• Honesty involves truthfulness and transparency in all research aspects.
• Integrity maintains high ethical standards while avoiding conflicts of interest.
• Objectivity minimizes bias and strives for impartiality in studies.
• Openness shares data, methods, and results with the scientific community.
• Credit gives appropriate acknowledgment to others' contributions.
• Responsibility means accountability for the consequences of research.

History of Science

• Ancient science includes developments in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
• Medieval science includes advancements during the Middle Ages in Europe and the Islamic world.
• The Scientific Revolution occurred during the 16th-17th centuries in Europe, marked by experimental science and new theories.
• Modern Science began in the 18th century to the present characterized by specialization, collaboration, and technological innovation.

Impact of Science on Society

• Science profoundly impacts society through technological advancements, improved healthcare, and enhanced understanding.
• Technology applies scientific knowledge for practical purposes, creating new tools, machines, and processes.
• Medicine advancements lead to new treatments, vaccines, and diagnostics, improving health and longevity.
• Environment: Science plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.
• Economy: Scientific innovation drives economic growth and creates new industries and job opportunities.

Explore the basics of science: a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis. Learn its core principles, including empirical evidence, testability, objectivity, and reproducibility. Discover how science develops theories and models to explain the universe.