Introduction to Science: Principles and Methods

• Science employs a systematic and organized method to understand the natural world.
• The approach involves observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Science includes the formulation of testable hypotheses.
• It also necessitates the collection of empirical evidence.
• Theories are developed to explain phenomena.

Core Principles

• Empiricism involves relying on observation and experimentation for data and evidence.
• Rationalism uses logical arguments to interpret data.
• Skepticism requires claims to be verified through testing and replication.
• Objectivity aims to minimize bias when interpreting data.
• Parsimony is choosing the simplest adequate explanation (Occam's Razor).

Scientific Method

• Observation is identifying a phenomenon or question.
• Hypothesis involves forming a testable explanation or prediction.
• Experimentation requires designing controlled tests.
• Data Analysis involves identifying patterns and relationships.
• Conclusion requires supporting or refuting a hypothesis.
• Communication entails sharing findings to allow for peer review and further investigation.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences focus on studying the physical world.
  • Physics studies matter, energy, space, and time.
  • Chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
  • Biology studies the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living organisms.
  • Earth Science studies the Earth's structure, processes, and its place in the universe.
  • Areas of study include geology, meteorology, and oceanography.
  • Astronomy studies celestial objects, space, and the universe.
• Social Sciences focus on human behavior and societies.
  • Psychology studies the human mind and behavior.
  • Sociology examines social behavior, institutions, and structures.
  • Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
  • Anthropology studies human societies and cultures and their development.
  • Political Science analyzes political systems, behavior, and institutions.
• Formal Sciences utilize abstract systems and logic.
  • Mathematics studies numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
  • Logic focuses on the principles of valid reasoning and inference.
  • Computer Science includes the study of computation and information processing.
  • Statistics involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data.
• Applied Sciences apply scientific knowledge to practical purposes.
  • Engineering applies scientific principles to design and build structures.
  • Medicine is diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases and injuries.
  • Agriculture focuses on the production of crops and livestock.
  • Environmental Science studies interactions between humans and the environment.

Scientific Theories vs. Scientific Laws

• Scientific Theory explains the natural world incorporating facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
  • Theories are based on evidence but remain subject to testing and refinement.
  • The theory of evolution and general relativity are examples.
• Scientific Law predicts events under certain conditions.
  • They are based on repeated experimental observations.
  • Examples include the law of gravity and the laws of thermodynamics.

Measurement in Science

• Science relies on quantitative measurements for precision and accuracy.
• Standard Units facilitate communication and data comparison.
  • SI Units (International System of Units) are the standard system of units.
  • Units include meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time.
  • Also included are ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity.
• Measurement Tools ensure accurate measurement.
  • Examples include rulers, scales, thermometers, multimeters, and spectroscopes.

Data Analysis and Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics summarize and describe data.
  • The measures include mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
• Inferential Statistics make generalizations about populations.
  • Techniques include hypothesis testing, and confidence intervals.
• Data Visualization uses graphs and charts to represent data.
  • Scatter plots, histograms, and bar graphs are examples.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific Papers formally report original research findings.
  • They typically include an introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Peer Review evaluates scientific work to ensure quality and validity.
• Conferences and Presentations allow scientists to share findings.

Ethics in Science

• Integrity is honesty and transparency in research.
• Objectivity requires minimizing bias and conflicts of interest.
• Animal Welfare involves ethical treatment of animals in research.
• Human Subjects research protects the rights and welfare of participants.

Limitations of Science

• Science is limited to studying the natural world.
• It can't answer questions about subjective experiences or values.
• Scientific knowledge is provisional and can change based on new evidence.
• Science is influenced by social, cultural, and economic factors.

Pseudoscience

• Pseudoscience includes claims presented as scientific but lacking empirical evidence.
• Astrology, phrenology, and some alternative medicines are examples.
• Key characteristics include lack of testability and resistance to peer review.

Explore science as a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis. Learn about core principles such as empiricism, rationalism, skepticism, objectivity, and parsimony. Understand the scientific method, including observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation.