Introduction to Science and Scientific Method

• Science employs a systematic and organized approach to understand the natural world via observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Testable hypotheses are formulated and experiments are designed to test them; data interpretation leads to conclusions
• Science relies on empirical evidence, objectivity, and skepticism.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical and biological world.
• Physics studies the fundamental laws and principles governing matter, energy, space, and time.
• Chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
• Biology explores living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.
• Earth science encompasses the Earth's structure, composition, processes, and history.

Scientific Method

• Observation gathers information about the natural world using the senses.
• A question is a query about an observation that can be investigated.
• A hypothesis is a testable explanation for an observation or phenomenon.
• Prediction states what will happen if the hypothesis is correct.
• Experiment is a controlled test of a hypothesis.
• Analysis interprets data and draws conclusions.
• Conclusion summarizes the findings of an experiment.

Scientific Theories

• A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world incorporating facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
• Theories are based on a substantial body of evidence, not mere guesses.
• New evidence can modify or refine theories.
• Examples include the theory of gravity, evolution, and relativity.

Scientific Laws

• A scientific law is a descriptive statement or equation that reliably predicts events under certain conditions.
• Laws are based on repeated experimental observations and measurements.
• They are often expressed mathematically.
• Examples include the law of conservation of energy, Newton's laws of motion, and the laws of thermodynamics.

Measurement and Units

• Measurement assigns a numerical value to a physical quantity.
• The International System of Units (SI) is the standard system of units.
• Basic SI units include meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for temperature, mole (mol) for amount of substance, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

• Quantitative data is numerical information that can be measured and expressed numerically.
• Qualitative data is descriptive information that cannot be easily measured numerically, based on observations and descriptions.

Variables and Controls

• Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter.
• Dependent variable is measured/observed in response to independent variable changes.
• Controlled variables are kept constant during an experiment to ensure that only the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable.
• Control group does not receive treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison.

Errors in Scientific Investigations

• Systematic errors are consistent errors due to faulty equipment/experimental design.
• Random errors occur due to chance and are unpredictable.
• Human errors are mistakes made by the experimenter.

Data Presentation

• Data is presented in tables, graphs, and charts.
• Tables organize data in rows and columns, allowing easy comparison.
• Graphs visualize relationships, like line graphs, bar graphs, and scatter plots.
• Charts represent data visually, like pie charts and histograms.

Statistics in Science

• Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data.
• Descriptive statistics summarize data, such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
• Inferential statistics makes inferences about a population based on a sample, like hypothesis testing and confidence intervals.

Ethics in Science

• Scientific ethics involves principles/guidelines for integrity and responsible research.
• Honesty: Scientists should be truthful and transparent in their research and reporting.
• Objectivity: Scientists should minimize bias and conflicts of interest.
• Openness: Scientists should share their data, methods, and results.
• Credit: Scientists should give proper credit to the contributions of others.
• Social responsibility: Scientists should consider the potential impacts of their research.

Importance of Science

• Science provides a foundation for technological advancements and innovation.
• Science improves our understanding of the natural world.
• Science informs decision-making in areas such as health, environment, and policy.
• Science fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.
• Science enhances the quality of life and promotes sustainable development.

Scientific Instruments

• Microscopes magnify small objects for detailed observation.
• Telescopes allow viewing of distant objects.
• Spectroscopes separates light into its component wavelengths for analysis.
• Particle accelerators accelerate particles to high speeds for studying subatomic phenomena.
• Sensors detect and measure quantities, such as temperature, pressure, and light.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific communication shares scientific findings/information.
• It involves writing papers, presenting at conferences, and publishing in journals.
• Effective communication advances knowledge and fosters collaboration.