Introduction to Science and Knowledge

Overview of Science

• Science systematically organizes knowledge into testable hypotheses and predictions.
• Divided into major branches: natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) and behavioral sciences (economics, psychology, sociology).
• Formal sciences (logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science) study formal systems; often considered separate as they rely on deductive reasoning rather than empirical methods.
• Applied sciences utilize scientific knowledge for practical applications, such as engineering and medicine.

Historical Context

• Early written records of science trace back to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia (circa 3000 to 1200 BCE).
• Contributions from these regions influenced Greek natural philosophy, aiming to explain physical events through natural causes.
• The Golden Age of India introduced advancements including the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.
• Scientific inquiry declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire but saw a resurgence during Medieval renaissances.
• Greek manuscripts were preserved and advanced in the Islamic Golden Age, influencing European scholarship at the Renaissance's onset.
• The recovery of Greek works and Islamic knowledge on natural philosophy catalyzed the Scientific Revolution beginning in the 16th century.

Evolution of Scientific Methodology

• The scientific method gained prominence in knowledge creation, evolving through the 19th century alongside the formalization of "natural science."
• Science transitioned from "natural philosophy" to institutional and professional structures.
• Contemporary research is collaborative, often conducted by teams across academic, governmental, and corporate sectors.

Societal Impact and Science Policies

• Scientific advancements have led to the establishment of science policies focusing on ethical development in various sectors such as health care and environmental protection.

Etymology of the Term "Science"

• Derives from Middle English, referring to "the state of knowing," through Anglo-Norman and Latin origins.
• Latin term "scientia" means "knowledge," while "sciens" translates to "knowing."
• Possible Proto-Indo-European roots connect to meanings related to "to know" and "to incise."
• Historically synonymous with "knowledge" or "study"; researchers were termed "natural philosophers."
• The term "scientist" was coined by William Whewell in 1834 in a review, marking a shift in terminology.

Science's Early Development

• Lacks a singular origin; systematic methods developed over thousands of years globally.
• Women likely played significant roles in early scientific inquiry, although details are scant.