Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• Behavior includes observable actions like walking and talking.
• Mental processes are internal and non-observable, such as thinking and emotions.
• Psychologists study memory, language, reasoning, emotions, personality, and mental health.

The Four Goals of Psychology

• Describe: Identifying what is happening in a given situation.
• Explain: Understanding why a behavior or mental process is occurring.
• Predict: Anticipating what will happen next based on observations and data.
• Influence (Control): Altering conditions to affect a specific outcome.

Careers in Psychology

• Clinical Psychology: Provides therapy for mental health issues.
• Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on thinking, memory, and perception.
• Social Psychology: Examines social behavior and interactions.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies human growth and changes across the lifespan.
• Forensic Psychology: Applies psychology to legal and criminal matters.
• Psychologists hold a Master’s, Psy.D, or Ph.D. and study behavior and mental processes, but cannot prescribe medication .
• Psychiatrists are medical doctors (M.D.) who focus on mental disorders and can prescribe medication. OPQ licenses psychologists in (Quebec).

Psychology vs. Common Sense

• Psychology uses the scientific method with observation, experimentation, and empirical data collection.
• Pseudo-Psychology lacks scientific evidence.
• Trephining from the Stone Age involved drilling skull holes to release "evil spirits", but lacks scientific backing.
• Phrenology, the idea that skull bumps reveal personality traits, also falls under pseudo-science.
• Graphology, handwriting analysis to determine personality, is another example of pseudo-science.
• Astrology, claiming stars determine personality and fate, is a form of pseudo-science.

The Barnum Effect

• The Barnum Effect refers to the tendency for people to believe vague, general statements are personally meaningful.
• This applies to horoscopes, personality tests, and fortune tellers, where generalizations seem individualized.
• People seek meaning and connections, and positive statements feel more personal.
• Exaggerated claims, absence of connection to research, lack of self-correction or scholarly review, and "proof" instead of evidence are signs of pseudoscience.

Critical Thinking in Psychology

• Critical thinking involves evaluating, analyzing, and questioning information before accepting it.
• Empirical testing involves testing all claims with data.
• Evidence quality should be evaluated as not all sources are reliable.
• Expertise does not automatically guarantee correctness.
• It is important to keep an open mind and consider all possibilities before drawing conclusions.
• Critical thinking helps to differentiate science from pseudoscience, improves decision-making, and reduces bias and misinformation.

The Literal Origins of Psychology

• The word psychology originally meant "the study of the soul or mind."
• Psychology's roots can be traced back to Ancient Egypt & Greece.
• It became a scientific discipline in the 1500s, with major growth in the 1800s.

Early Influenses

• Philosophy contributed rationalism, the idea that knowledge comes from reason and logic.
• Physiology influenced empirical research based on observation and experiments using the scientific method.

Early Schools of Thought: Structuralism (1879)

• Key figure: Wilhelm Wundt, considered the "Father of Psychology."
• Wundt established the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany.
• Focus: Breaking down conscious experiences into basic elements.
• Method: Introspection, or examining one’s own thoughts and feelings.
• Edward Titchener introduced structuralism to the U.S.
• Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (1894).

Early Schools of Thought: Functionalism (1890s)

• Key Figure: William James is known as the "Father of American Psychology."
• William James wrote "The Principles of Psychology" (1890).
• Focus: Understanding how behavior and mental processes help us adapt to our environment.
• Functionalism shifted the focus to how the mind works to allow people to function in the real world.
• Though now a major perspective, it influenced behaviorism.

Early Schools of Thought: Psychoanalytic Psychology (1900s)

• Key figure: Sigmund Freud.
• Key books: "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900), "A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1922).
• Focus: The unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviors.
• Early childhood experiences shape personality.
• Repressed desires impact emotions.
• Methods: Dream analysis and free association to uncover hidden motivations.
• Other contributors: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Karen Horney.

Early Schools of Thought: Behaviorism (1913)

• Key figures: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.
• Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning (dog experiment) through repeated associations.
• John B. Watson is known as the "Father of Behaviorism" and applied conditioning to humans.
• B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning, studying the effects of rewards and punishments.
• Focus: Examining observable behaviors rather than thoughts or emotions.
• Learning happens through reinforcement and punishment.
• Methods: Controlled experiments like the Skinner box.
• It is still used today in behavior therapy and education.

Early Schools of Thought: Gestalt Psychology (1920s)

• Key figure: Max Wertheimer.
• Focus: Understanding that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
• The mind organizes information into meaningful patterns.
• Example: Law of Closure where the brain fills in gaps to form complete shapes.
• Gestalt psychology has influenced modern perception and cognitive psychology.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Psychodynamic Perspective

• Unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions are studied.
• Early childhood experiences are a main focus.
• Key Figures: Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Behavioral Perspective

• Behavior is learned from the environment and reinforcement.
• Thoughts or emotions are not considered.
• Applications include behavior therapy, habit management, and phobia treatment.
• Key Figures: Watson, Pavlov, Skinner.
• The Skinner box is used to expose animals to stimuli and study effects of reinforcements and punishments.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Humanistic-Existential Perspective

• Free will and personal growth are the focus.
• Self-actualization, the process of reaching full potential, is a key concept.
• Key Figures: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs suggests motivation is based on fulfilling needs.
• It is still used today in therapy and self-development.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Cognitive Perspective

• How people think, learn, remember, and solve problems is studied.
• Methods: Memory research and decision-making studies.
• Key Figures: Jean Piaget (cognitive development) and Edward Tolman (cognitive maps).
• It is used in AI research and educational psychology.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Evolutionary Perspective

• States behavior is shaped by natural selection.
• Traits that help survival are passed down through adaptive behavior.
• Example: Babies cry to keep parents nearby, which provides a survival advantage.
• Key Figures: David Buss (mate selection), Steven Pinker.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Biological Perspective

• Behavior is influenced by genes, brain chemistry, and hormones.
• Research areas include sleep, drug effects, and neuroplasticity.

Modern Psychological Perspectives: Sociocultural Perspective

• Sociocultural Perspective studies how culture and society shape thoughts and behaviors.
• Social norms for eye contact and emotional expression are examined.
• Key Figures: Wilhelm Wundt, David Matsumoto.

Combining Perspectives: The Eclectic Approach

• The Eclectic Approach combines multiple perspectives and is used in today’s psychology for a more complete view.
• Biopsychosocial Model: Behavior = biology + psychology + social environment
• Ecological Systems Model: Urie Bronfenbrenner stated that individuals interact with families, communities, & cultures.

Why is Psychological Research Important?

• Psychology is often viewed as non-scientific but research proves otherwise.
• Many misconceptions, e.g. about Pavlov’s dogs experiment, exist.
• Some past research was flawed or fraudulent; Bettelheim's theory on autism is an example of flawed research.
• Scientific research is empirical and is based on objective, observable, and repeatable evidence.
• Research is a mandatory process in validating claims.
• Without research, reliance is placed on intuition and assumptions.
• Research validates claims and advances scientific understanding.

Types of Research Methods: Descriptive Research

Naturalistic Observation

• Observing behavior in a natural environment (e.g., school playground).
• Pros: Behavior is natural, good for early research stages.
• Cons: Observer effect, observer bias, no control over variables.
• Anthropomorphism is attributing thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals.

Case Studies

• In-depth study of an individual (e.g., Phineas Gage).
• Pros: Provides deep insight into rare cases.
• Cons: Results cannot be generalized to the larger population.

Surveys & Interviews

• Asking large groups of people questions about thoughts and behaviors
• Pros: Efficient, fast, not expensive, large sample size
• Cons: People may lie (social desirability bias), wording effects influence responses

Types of Research Methods: Correlational Research

Correlation Studies

• Correlation studies measure the relationship between two variables.
• Correlation Coefficient (r) measures the strength/directions of the relation between 2 variables.
• Positive correlation (+1.00): Both variables increase together (e.g., hours studied & GPA).
• Negative correlation (-1.00): One increases, the other decreases (e.g., alcohol consumption & GPA).
• Zero correlation (0): No relationship
• Correlation ≠ Causation (e.g., ice cream sales & crime rates increase together, but due to temperature).
• Scatterplots offer a graphical view of the strength/directions of correlations. The stronger the correlation, the closer the points are.
• A confounding variable is an unanticipated outside factor impacts both variables of interest, possibly suggesting changes in one variable cause changes in the other.
• Advantages: The discovery of relationships that allow make general predictions.
• Limitations: We cannot simply imply causation from correlations.
• Illusory Correlations: Seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists.(full moon theory makes people oddly)

Types of Research Methods: Experimental Research

Conducting Experiments

• Control Group (No Treatment) vs. Experimental Group (Receives Treatment)
• Independent Variable (IV): What is manipulated (e.g., drug dosage)
• Dependent Variable (DV): What is measured (e.g., improvement in mood)

Control Measures

• Placebo Effect: People feel better because they believe in the treatment.
• Single-Blind Study: Participants don’t know which group they’re in.
• Double-Blind Study: Neither participants nor researchers know.
• Participants bias: changing behavior when they know the expectations.
• Experimenter/researcher bias: expectations unintentionally influence the results.
• Variables: independent (influenced/controlled by experimenter), dependent (measures to see how much effect the independent variable had).

Statistical analysis

• Determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance.
• Either significant or non-significant results.
• To be significant the difference needs to occurred 5% or less.
• The more random, manipulation, and control over variables, the less likely it is that results will occur by chance.
• Meta-analysis: combines and statistically analyses results from multiple studies on same topic.
• Provides a better comprehensive and exhaustive understanding of phenomenon.
• Generalizes findings

Ethics in Research

• Research involving humans must be approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB), a committee of administrators, scientists, e.t.c.
• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully aware of risks and can withdraw at any time.
• Confidentiality: Data must be protected.
• Animal Research: Used when unethical on humans, must follow strict ethical guidelines.
• Why use animals?: Their shorter life span leads to results over a lifetime faster, they are easier to control, cheaper, and more available.
• Ethical considerations for animals:
• Research only for human and animal health/quality of life; avoidance of unnecessary pain; prolonged deprivation (nutrition); restraint (cage); unjustified surgery.

Introduction to Biopsychology

• Biopsychology studies how biology affects behavior, thoughts, and emotions.
• Focus: The interaction of the brain, hormones, neurotransmitters, and environment in shaping who we are.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Are we shaped more by genetics (nature) or environment (nurture)?
• Nature includes biological inheritance like DNA, genes, and neurotransmitters.
• Nurture includes life experiences, upbringing, and social interactions.
• Current View: The interactionist perspective, where both nature and nurture influence human development.

Key Concepts in Genetics

• Chromosomes: Rod-shaped structures in the nucleus containing 23 pairs (46 total).
• DNA: Genetic code carrying instructions for protein production.
• Alleles: Variations of genes (dominant vs. recessive) that determine traits like eye color, gene type, or disease.
• While studying heredity, often look to multiple generations (4) to understand the pattern of inheritance.
• Genotype: Genetic blueprint (DNA sequence) inherited from parents.
• Phenotype: Observable traits (appearance, behavior, health).
• Dominant gene: when only 1 out of 2 present in DNA (chromosomes) (B).
• Recessive gene: when 2 out of 2 present in DNA (chromosomes) (b).
• Mental health issues simply genetic?: Can run in the family leading to potential genetic roots.
• Interactionist perspective: nature and nurture are interconnected, influence each other and shape person development
• Genetic predisposition (nature): foundation of traits, these genetic factors can change/influence with life experience, social, culture
• Environmental factors (nurture): education, social interactions shape expression of genetic have effect on behavior, cognition and personality

Example of Schizophrenia & Genetics

• Genetic Risk is higher in families with schizophrenia history.
• Environmental Factors like stress, trauma, and drug use can trigger the disorder.
• Other potential causes are environment (virus, malnutrition before birth), brain chemistry (dopamine, glutamate), substance drug.
• The Stress-Vulnerability Model by Zubin suggests mental disorders arise from genetic predisposition + environmental stressors.

Epigenetics: How Environment Affects Genes

• Epigenetics is the study of how lifestyle & environment can influence gene expression without changing DNA sequence.
• Gene expression impacts weight, growth, intelligence, and mental health.
• Examples of epigenetic effects include:
  • Maternal stress affecting infant stress responses (McGill study).
  • Smoking causing gene modifications (twin studies).
  • Diet & lifestyle influencing risk of diseases like obesity & depression.
• Genes are not destiny, as environmental factors can modify genetic expression.

The Nervous System & Neurons

• Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system that transmit information. Neurons signals can be:
• Electrical, with action potential enabling neuronal activity.
• Chemical, with neurotransmitters enable neurons to communicate in their activity.
• Electrochemical signals are exchanged by neurons via synapse, creating brain activity.

Neuron Structure & Function

• Dendrites receive signals from other neurons.
• Soma contains DNA and processes signals.
• Axon transmits electrical impulses.
• Myelin Sheath insulates and speeds up transmission.
• Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in myelin, allowing faster signal jumps.
• Terminal Buttons release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.
• Communication: neurons does not touch each other so they transmit electrochemical signals to others via synapse.

Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that make us feel pain, emotions reactions, behave, e.t.c.
• Healthy = rapid neuronal signal moves.
• Major neurotransmitters include:
  • Dopamine for movement, pleasure, motivation. (Low in Parkinson’s, high in schizophrenia).
  • Serotonin for mood regulation. (Low levels linked to depression).
  • GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. (Low levels linked to anxiety). Endorphin involve in pain, pleasure decrease anxiety and tension.

Synaptic Transmission

• Neurons communicate via synapses using neurotransmitters. 1 Action Potential happens when electrical signal travels down the axon. 2 Neurotransmitter Release when chemicals cross the synaptic gap. 3 Receptor Binding happens when neurotransmitters bind to receptors on receiving neuron. 4 Excitatory or Inhibitory Response determines neuron’s activity. 5 Reuptake & Breakdown happens when neurotransmitters are either reabsorbed or broken down.
• Psychotropic medication treats psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance.
• Agonists enhance neurotransmitter activity (e.g., dopamine agonists for Parkinson’s).
• Antagonists block neurotransmitter activity (e.g., antipsychotics for schizophrenia).

The Human Brain

• The brain is a highly complex organ composed of billions of neurons and glial cells that support and protect neurons.
• The brain is bilateral (divided into two hemispheres) and consists of distinct lobes, each responsible for different functions.
• All brain areas work together to regulate thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body functions.

Brain Two Hemispheres: Lateralization

• Lateralization is when some mental processes are more dominant in one hemisphere than the other, but both hemispheres work together.
• The left hemisphere controls sensory stimulus and motor control in the right side body. Includes Language, logic, analytical thinking, words, letters, and numbers.
• The right hemisphere controls sensory stimulus and motor control in the left side body. Includes Creativity, spatial ability, intuition, emotions, and recognition faces, places and objects.
• Located on the the Corpus Callosum, which is the bridge that connects between the two hemispheres and allows communication between them by transmitting neural messages.

The Cerebral Cortex & Its Lobes

• Cerebral Cortex: Associated with our highest mental capabilities like reasoning, memory, language, thought, emotion and consciousness

Frontal Lobe (Executive/ Conductor Control)

• Préfrontal cortex: Controls higher level cognitive functions like Planning, problem-solving, judgment, reasoning.
• Motor Cortex: Controls movement, planning them with the visual information
• Broca’s Area: Causes speech production. (damage = difficulty speaking but can still understand language)

Parietal Lobe (Sensory Processing)

• How tell left from right, orient yourself. information coming from our 5 sens (touch,smell,sound,eyesight,taste)
• Processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain. -Helps with spatial awareness & body coordination.

Temporal Lobe (Hearing & Long-Term Memory)

• Listening and language comprehension, long-term memory and emotions
• Auditory Cortex: Processes sound (auditory information).
• Wernicke’s Area: Speech comprehension (damage = fluent but nonsensical speech).

Occipital Lobe (Vision Processing)

• Processes visual information.
• Interprets color, shape, and motion.

The Limbic System: Emotion & Memory

• The Limbic System regulates emotions, memory, and survival instincts.
• Key Structures:
  • Amygdala: Processes emotions (fear, anger, aggression) and emotional memory. -Hippocampus: Essential for learning and forming new memories.
  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone release.

The Hindbrain is Located at the Back of the Head

• The hindbrain controls basic survival functions and coordination.
• Key Structures: -Medulla: Regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
  • Pons (bridge): Connects the brain and spinal cord and is involved in sleep regulation
  • Cerebellum: Controls balance, coordination, movement and motor learning, important in processing some type of memory (procedural)
• The above are all known as the brain stem.

Brain Imaging Techniques

• Helps study the brain.

Techniques Using Radiation

• CT Scan: Uses X-rays to detect brain tumors or injuries.
• PET Scan: Tracks blood flow and brain activity using a radioactive tracer (injecting it). Helpful for showing different parts of the brain.

Techniques Using Magnetic Fields

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates detailed images of brain tissue.
• fMRI (Functional MRI): Shows brain activity over time (metabolic activity).

Techniques Using Electrical Activity

• EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures brain wave activity (used for sleep and epilepsy studies), recording electrical activity with electrodes on scalp
• MEG (Magnetoencephalography): Measures real-time brain activity, way better than fMRI because can move during scan
• Comparison: fMRI & PET = Best for tracking brain function MRI & CT = Best for imaging brain structure EEG & MEG = Best for real-time activity monitoring

The Nervous System

• The nervous system controls thoughts, emotions, and body movements.
• Divided into two main parts: -Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain & Spinal Cord -Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Carries signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
• Two Subsystems of the PNS:
  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements like walking, writing (sense the world and respond to it)
  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) has two branches:
  • Sympathetic System: Activates fight-or-flight response and increases heart rate and adrenaline release
  • Parasympathetic System: Calms the body by slowing heart rate and promotes digestion
• Both systems work together to maintain homeostasis (balance)

The Endocrine System

• The Endocrine System regulates growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction through hormones with different type of glands.
  • The Pituitary Gland: The “Master Gland” that controls the secretion of other glands
  • The Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism, growth and appetite (Thyroxine hormone)
  • The Adrenal Glands: Releases stress response hormones (Cortisol & Adrenaline)
  • The Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar (Insulin & Glucagon)
  • The Gonads (Testes & Ovaries): Control reproduction & sexual motivation (Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone)
  • The Pineal Gland: Produces Melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles
• The Hypothalamus links both systems by controlling the Pituitary Gland.
• Underactive Thyroid (Hypothyroidism) causes slowed metabolism, weight gain, and fatigue.
• Overactive Thyroid causes fast metabolism, weight loss, and anxiety.

What is Consciousness?

• Definition: A continuous stream of thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of which we are aware. Consiousness can be divided into:
• Internal sitmuli: Hunger, pain, emotions, thoughts
• External stimuli: Light, temperature, sounds, people
• Altered States of Consciousness: Mental states different from ordinary waking consciousness, such as:
  • Sleep: marked by a low level of physical activity; reduced sensory awareness
  • Meditation -Hypnosis
  • Drug-induced states

Biological Rhythms & The Sleep-Wake Cycle

• Biological Rhythms are internal cycles of biological activity.
• Examples: -Menstrual cycle (Infradian rhythm)
  • Body temperature fluctuations
  • Levels of alertness
• Circadian Rhythms (24-hour cycles= Control the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, and hormone levels.
• Circadian Rhythms are regulated by the hypothalamus (Suprachiasmatic Nucleus - SCN).

How does Suprachiasmatic work?

• Light exposure signals the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus.
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus signals the pineal gland.
• Melatonin release = Induces sleep.
• Body Temperature & Alertness: Body temperature rises throughout the day and drops at night. People sleep best when their body temperature is lowest.

Chronotypes: Morning vs. Night People

• Chronotype refers to natural preference for morning or evening activity.
• Morning People (“Larks”): Body temperature rises quickly in the morning and sleep and wake up earlier.
• Night People (“Owls”): Sleep and wake up later.
• Depends on sleeping preferences, energy levels throughout the day, meal timing, and other facets of your circadian rhythm. Depends on depends on: sleeping preferences, energy levels throughout the day, meal timing, and other facets of your circadian rhythm. Chronotype is influenced by: genetics, circadian rhythm, behavior & environment.

Disruptions to Sleep & Circadian Rhythms

• When biological rhythms are disrupted, it can cause fatigue, mood changes, and cognitive difficulties.
• Common Disruptions:
  • Jet Lag occurs when theinternal clock mismatches a new time zone. Jet lag is temporary.
  • Shift Work: Night shifts disrupt natural circadian rhythms.
  • Sleep Debt occurs when chronic sleep deprivation leads to negative health effects.

Why Do We Sleep?

• Adaptive Function (Evolutionary Perspective): Sleep helps restore energy used during the day and reduces exposure to predators.
• Cognitive Function & Memory Formation: -Stage 3 Sleep: Helps store declarative memories (facts, events)
  • Stage 5 helps process procedural memories (skills, actions)
• Physical & Emotional Benefits of Sleep:
  • Brain repairs tissue Growth
  • hormones released Strengthens immune system
  • Regulates emotions & mood
• Lack of sleep impairs multiple functions. Memory & learning; Problem-solving skills;; problems with Immune function; Affects Mood & stress regulation.

How is Sleep Measured/Examined?

• Sleep studies use different tools: -EEG (Electroencephalogram): Looks at electrical brain activity -EOG (Electrooculography): Records eye movements = EMG (Electromyography): Monitors muscle activity. Vitals: Measures heart rate, blood pressure, breathing

Stages of Sleep

• Two main sleep phases: -Non-REM (NREM) Sleep (Stages 1-4) -REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep (Stage 5)

NREM Sleep Stages

• Stage 1: Light sleep, slower alpha & theta waves, heart rate & breathing slow down
• Stage 2: Body temp drop, breathing heart rate slows, sleep spindles & K-complexes appear to protect sleep & help with learning
• NREM Stages 3-4: Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS) or Deep Sleep, large delta waves, body repairs itself (muscle growth, immune function), most restorative sleep
• REM Sleep (Stage 5) Brain is highly active with vivid dreams. Paralysis (muscle atonia) prevents acting out dreams. -Plays a role in emotional processing stages.
• People wake up from REM sleep remembering vivid dreams.

Sleep Disorders: Parasomnias (Unusual)

• Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Usually occurs in deep sleep (Stage 3-4).
• Sleep Paralysis: Awake but unable to move.
• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD): Muscle atonia fails, allowing movement during dreams.
• Night Terrors: In mostly children the sudden panic, screaming, no memory of event; happens in deep sleep (Stage 4), not REM
• Treatment for parasomnias may include: Improving sleep habits; managing stress & anxiety; and medications (if necessary)

Major Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: The most common sleep disorder
  • Temporary (acute): 3 weeks or less
  • Chronic: Difficulty falling asleep or staying sleeping 3+ nights a week for 3+ months
  • Leads to depression & anxiety
• Narcolepsy: Characterized by sudden REM sleep attacks during the day
  • Often triggered by strong emotions
  • May experience cataplexy (sudden muscle weakness/paralysis)
  • Needs drugs to stay awake, and hypnagogic Hallucinations which are vivid, dream-like hallucinations.
• Sleep Apnea: Breathing stops during sleep; and causes fatigue & cardiovascular problems.

Dreams:

• Mental activity during sleep - produces images, representations, sensations
  • NREM Dreams: less vivid, memorable than REM and occur randomly
  • If someone is good controlling thoughts when awake = successful at lucid dreaming
• Next up model

Theories on Dreaming:

• Psychoanalytic (Freud): Dreams reflect hidden desires & repressed thoughts
• Carl Jung’s View: Dreams connect to universal symbols (archetypes)
• Cognitive Theory: Dreams help process emotions & memories
• Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams are random brain activity

Meditation: A State of Focused Awareness

• Meditation is an altered state that involves focusing on the present moment to achieve a calm awareness.
• Puts the mind in a state between wakefulness & sleep but with focus, and is associated with theta brain waves.
• Unlike sleep, meditation maintains alert relaxation where the body is deeply relaxed but the mind stays focused