Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes, behavior, and their interactions
• Psychology comes from the Greek words "psyche" (mind) and "logos" (knowledge/study)

Overt vs Covert Processes

• Overt behaviors are directly observable actions like eating, sleeping, talking, and moving
• Covert processes are internal cognitive, mental, and emotional processes, such as perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and feeling

Boundaries and Borders of Psychology

• Psychology is a broad field with many disciplines addressing questions about the mind and behavior
• Psychology shares boundaries with other disciplines, including the study of the biology of the brain
• Biopsychology (or behavioral neuroscience) explores the biological boundaries of psychology

Philosophical Roots of Psychology

• Psychology has roots in Greek philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) and Eastern philosophy
• Physiology and philosophy are two disciplines that psychology has roots in

Philosophical Issues and Psychological Questions

• Key questions in psychology include:
  • Free will versus determinism
  • Nature versus nurture
  • Rationalism versus empiricism
  • Reason versus emotion
  • Conscious versus unconscious
  • Mental versus physical (mind/body)

Early Psychological Science

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was a proponent of structuralism, focusing on the structure of consciousness
• William James (1842-1910) was a proponent of functionalism, focusing on the function of consciousness

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920)

• Wundt, a physiologist, established psychology as a separate discipline
• He is known as the father of psychology
• Wundt established the first psychology research laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
• In 1881, Wundt established the first journal publishing research in psychology
• Wundt defined psychology as the scientific study of conscious experience
• He investigated vision, touch, hearing, attention, and emotion using introspection

Structuralism

• Edward Titchener (1867-1927), Wundt's student, brought structuralism to the USA
• Structuralism uses introspection to examine the structure of consciousness by identifying basic elements (sensations, feelings, emotions) and their relationships
• Trained participants described thoughts and feelings when presented with stimuli

Criticisms of Structuralism

• It is reductionistic, reducing complex behavior to simple elements
• It is elemental, seeking to combine elements into a whole
• Relies on verbal reports which aren’t suitable for children or people with communication difficulties

William James (Functionalism)

• James asked about the purpose of consciousness and how people adapt their behavior to the environment
• Functionalism is more practical or applied
• Topics include childhood development, educational effectiveness, and sex differences

Perspectives in Psychology

• Psychological issues can be approached using multiple perspectives
• Key perspectives include:
  • Psychodynamic approach
  • Behaviorism
  • Humanistic perspective
  • Cognitive perspective
  • Evolutionary perspective

Psychodynamic Approach

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed this approach
• Focuses on the unconscious and explains personality, motivation, and mental disorders based on unconscious determinants (instincts, feelings)
• Conscious and unconscious forces interact to control thoughts and behaviors

Psychodynamic Premises

• Actions are determined by interconnected thoughts, feelings, and wishes
• Many mental events occur outside conscious awareness
• Mental processes may conflict

Psychodynamic Evidence

• Case studies of patients
• Reflection on anxieties, conflicts, and desires

Behaviourism

• Dominant in the 1950s & 1960s
• J.B. Watson (1878-1958) advocated studying observable behavior and abandoning the study of consciousness
• B.F. Skinner (1971) argued free will is an illusion
• Redefined psychology as the science of behavior
• Behavior is any overt response or activity by an organism
• Focuses on learning and changes in behavior based on experience

Behaviourism Ideas

• Extreme position on nature-nurture
• Stimulus-response psychology relates stimuli to overt behaviors
• Emphasizes environmental control

Humanistic Perspective

• Carl Rogers(1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) objected to the idea that people have no control
• Argued other approaches dehumanized and failed to recognize human qualities
• It is optimistic, emphasizing humans' unique qualities

Humanistic Considerations

• Human behavior is governed by the "sense of self" (self-concept) and the drive toward self-actualization
• Research on animals does not apply to human behavior
• People are good and strive for goals
• Uses person-centered perspective for treating psychological problems and disorders

Cognitive Perspective

• The cognitive revolution renewed interest in consciousness & physiological bases of behavior, with advancements in technology
• Influenced by cognitive development (Piaget, 1954), memory (Miller, 1956), language (Chomsky, 1957), and problem-solving (Newell, Shaw & Simon, 1956)

Cognitive Assumptions

• Assumes internal mental events must be studied to understand behavior
• Cognition includes mental processes in perceiving, processing, and retrieving information (memory, concept formation, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language)

Cognitive Metaphors

• The mind is like a computer
• The mind is like the brain itself
• A concept is a network of activated nerve cells

Evolutionary Perspective

• David Buss (1995, 1996)
• Human behaviors evolved to help ancestors survive and reproduce
• Some behaviors are biologically determined
• Applies Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to human behaviors (natural selection, adaptive traits, reproductive success)

Evolutionary Ideas

• Behavior patterns are products of evolution
• Evolutionary theory predicted grandparental investment based on paternity uncertainty
• Examples of evolutionary studies:
  • Mating preferences
  • Jealousy
  • Aggression
  • Sexual behavior
  • Language
  • Decision making
  • Sex differences in spatial abilities
• Females are certain of maternity

Psychological Perspective Focus:

• Psychodynamic: unconscious processes, conflict, and early experiences
• Behavioral: learning (behavior modified by consequences)
• Humanistic: self and motivation to achieve goals
• Cognitive: thought and memory
• Evolutionary: why we feel, think, or behave

Summation of Psychology

• Psychology studies behavior, underlying biological and cognitive processes, and applies accumulated knowledge to practical issues