Introduction to Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior
• It encompasses the biological, psychological, and social-cultural dimensions of human experience

Historical Perspectives

• Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879
• Introspection was an early method used to study the mind by self-reflection
• Structuralism aimed to identify the basic elements of the mind
• Functionalism explored the purpose of mental processes and behavior in adapting to the environment
• William James was a key figure in functionalism
• Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, emphasized the role of the unconscious mind
• Behaviorism, championed by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, focused on observable behavior
• Behaviorism disregarded the importance of internal mental processes
• The cognitive revolution in the 1960s revived interest in mental processes
• Cognitive psychology explores how we perceive, process, and remember information
• Humanistic psychology, led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasized human potential and growth

Major Perspectives in Psychology

• Biological perspective examines the biological factors influencing behavior and mental processes
• Evolutionary perspective studies how natural selection has shaped behavior
• Psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious drives and conflicts
• Behavioral perspective focuses on learned behaviors and environmental influences
• Cognitive perspective studies mental processes such as memory, thinking, and problem-solving
• Humanistic perspective emphasizes individual potential and self-actualization
• Social-cultural perspective examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior

Research Methods in Psychology

• Descriptive research describes phenomena
• Naturalistic observation studies behavior in a natural setting
• Surveys collect data from a sample through questionnaires or interviews
• Case studies examine individuals or groups in depth
• Correlational research examines the relationship between variables
• Correlation does not equal causation
• Experimental research manipulates variables to determine cause and effect
• Independent variable is the manipulated variable
• Dependent variable is the measured variable
• Control group is the group that does not receive the treatment
• Random assignment ensures participants have an equal chance of being in each group

Biological Psychology

• Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system
• The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord
• The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body
• The brain is divided into different regions with specific functions
• The cerebral cortex is responsible for higher-level cognitive processes
• The limbic system is involved in emotion, memory, and motivation
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons
• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine system
• Genetics play a role in behavior and mental processes

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation is the process of receiving sensory information
• Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
• Absolute threshold is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus
• Difference threshold is the minimum difference needed to detect a change in a stimulus
• Sensory adaptation is the diminished sensitivity to constant stimulation
• Vision involves the detection of light waves by the eyes
• Hearing involves the detection of sound waves by the ears
• Other senses include taste, smell, touch, and pain
• Perception is influenced by expectations, context, and emotions

Consciousness

• Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our environment
• Selective attention allows us to focus on specific stimuli
• Sleep is a periodic, natural loss of consciousness
• Circadian rhythm is the biological clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles
• Sleep stages include NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3, and REM sleep
• Dreams occur during REM sleep
• Sleep disorders include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
• Psychoactive drugs alter perception and mood
• Addiction is compulsive drug seeking and use despite negative consequences

Learning

• Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge or behaviors
• Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli
• Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning through his work with dogs
• Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences
• Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior
• Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior
• Observational learning involves learning by watching others
• Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated observational learning

Memory

• Memory is the persistence of learning over time
• Encoding is the process of getting information into memory
• Storage is the process of retaining information in memory
• Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory
• Sensory memory is brief storage of sensory information
• Short-term memory holds information temporarily
• Long-term memory is the relatively permanent storage of information
• Explicit memory involves conscious recall
• Implicit memory involves unconscious recall
• Forgetting can result from encoding failure, storage decay, or retrieval failure

Thinking and Language

• Cognition includes mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
• Concepts are mental categories used to group objects, events, and ideas
• Problem-solving involves strategies such as trial and error, algorithms, and heuristics
• Decision-making involves weighing potential outcomes and risks
• Language is a system of communication using sounds, words, and grammar
• Language development occurs in stages from babbling to complex sentences

Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors
• Instinct theory proposes that behavior is driven by innate patterns
• Drive-reduction theory proposes that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tensions
• Arousal theory proposes that behavior is motivated by the desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy from basic to self-actualization
• Emotions are responses involving physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience
• James-Lange theory proposes that emotions result from physiological responses
• Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously
• Schachter-Singer two-factor theory proposes that emotions involve physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal

Development Psychology

• Developmental psychology studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
• Nature vs. nurture is the debate over the relative contributions of genes and environment
• Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one point in time
• Longitudinal studies follow the same individuals over time
• Cognitive development involves changes in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving
• Jean Piaget proposed stages of cognitive development
• Social development involves changes in relationships, emotions, and personality
• Erik Erikson proposed stages of psychosocial development
• Moral development involves changes in moral reasoning and behavior
• Lawrence Kohlberg proposed stages of moral development

Personality

• Personality is an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
• Psychodynamic theories emphasize unconscious processes and early childhood experiences
• Trait theories describe personality in terms of stable and enduring characteristics
• Big Five personality traits include openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
• Humanistic theories emphasize individual potential and self-actualization
• Social-cognitive theories emphasize the interaction of traits, environment, and behavior
• Personality assessments include self-report inventories and projective tests

Social Psychology

• Social psychology studies how individuals think about, influence, and relate to one another
• Attribution theory explains how we explain others' behavior
• Attitudes are feelings, beliefs, and behaviors toward people, objects, and ideas
• Persuasion involves changing attitudes
• Conformity is adjusting behavior to fit in with a group
• Obedience is following orders from an authority figure
• Group behavior includes social facilitation, social loafing, and group polarization
• Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group
• Discrimination is negative behavior toward a group
• Aggression is physical or verbal behavior intended to harm
• Altruism is selfless concern for others

Psychological disorders

• Psychological disorders are patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional
• The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used to classify psychological disorders
• Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Mood disorders include major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
• Schizophrenia is a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and negative symptoms
• Personality disorders are inflexible and enduring patterns of behavior that impair social functioning
• Neurodevelopmental disorders include autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Therapy

• Psychotherapy involves psychological techniques to treat mental disorders
• Biomedical therapy involves medications or other medical procedures
• Psychodynamic therapy explores unconscious conflicts and past experiences
• Humanistic therapy emphasizes self-awareness and personal growth
• Behavioral therapy uses learning principles to change behavior
• Cognitive therapy changes maladaptive thinking patterns
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy combines cognitive and behavioral techniques
• Group therapy involves treating multiple clients together
• Family therapy focuses on improving family communication and relationships
• Drug therapy uses medications to treat mental disorders
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used to treat severe depression
• Psychosurgery involves surgery on the brain to treat mental disorders