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Questions and Answers
Which component primarily provides structural support within the cell?
Which component primarily provides structural support within the cell?
What role do electrolytes play in cellular operations?
What role do electrolytes play in cellular operations?
What is the primary function of triglycerides in the cell?
What is the primary function of triglycerides in the cell?
Which two substances primarily compose the cell membrane, providing its structural framework?
Which two substances primarily compose the cell membrane, providing its structural framework?
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Which substance is most abundant in the protoplasm of a cell?
Which substance is most abundant in the protoplasm of a cell?
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How do structural proteins differ from functional proteins in a cell?
How do structural proteins differ from functional proteins in a cell?
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Which is NOT a component of protoplasm?
Which is NOT a component of protoplasm?
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Which organelle is primarily involved in synthesizing proteins?
Which organelle is primarily involved in synthesizing proteins?
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What is the primary substance from which cells extract energy through oxidative reactions?
What is the primary substance from which cells extract energy through oxidative reactions?
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Which statement about the nucleus is correct?
Which statement about the nucleus is correct?
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What distinguishes pinocytosis from phagocytosis?
What distinguishes pinocytosis from phagocytosis?
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Which function is primarily associated with the mitochondria in cells?
Which function is primarily associated with the mitochondria in cells?
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Which statement accurately describes phagocytosis?
Which statement accurately describes phagocytosis?
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What is the role of ATP in cells?
What is the role of ATP in cells?
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What mechanism is primarily involved in the rapid ingestion of large macromolecules by some cells?
What mechanism is primarily involved in the rapid ingestion of large macromolecules by some cells?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the nucleus?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the nucleus?
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What is one of the functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum?
What is one of the functions of rough endoplasmic reticulum?
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How do the functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria differ?
How do the functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria differ?
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What is a key characteristic of the Golgi apparatus?
What is a key characteristic of the Golgi apparatus?
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Which function does the glycocalyx perform in cellular activity?
Which function does the glycocalyx perform in cellular activity?
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Which statement about mitochondria is accurate?
Which statement about mitochondria is accurate?
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What role do carbohydrate moieties in the glycocalyx play in immune reactions?
What role do carbohydrate moieties in the glycocalyx play in immune reactions?
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Which of the following describes the smooth endoplasmic reticulum's involvement with glycogen?
Which of the following describes the smooth endoplasmic reticulum's involvement with glycogen?
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What distinguishes the rough endoplasmic reticulum from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
What distinguishes the rough endoplasmic reticulum from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Physiology and Cell Physiology
- Physiology is the science explaining physical and chemical mechanisms behind life's origin, development, and progression.
- Human physiology explains the characteristics and mechanisms of the human body, making it a living being. Examples include hunger, fear, and cold.
- The cell is the basic living unit, organs are aggregates of cells.
- Cells differ but share basic characteristics.
- Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the "internal environment," comprising 50-70% of the adult human body, mainly a water solution of ions and substances (around 42 liters). About two-thirds of this fluid is intracellular, and the remaining one-third is extracellular.
- All cells exist in the same extracellular fluid environment.
- The extracellular fluid is also called the internal environment or milieu intérieur, a term introduced over 150 years ago by Claude Bernard.
- Fluid and dissolved substances diffuse through capillary walls and interstitial spaces.
The Cell
- The cell is the basic living unit of the body, every organ contains multiple cells.
- Body cells differ greatly but share similarities.
- The "internal environment" is the extracellular fluid.
Fluid Compartments
- 14 liters of extracellular fluid (ECF): Plasma (3 L), Interstitial fluid (11 L)
- Within cells, 28 liters of intracellular fluid (ICF)
Constituents of ECF and ICF
- Key ions in ECF include Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, and smaller amounts of Ca2+ and K+.
- ICF has high K+ levels, phosphates, and proteins.
Body Systems and Homeostasis
- Body systems maintain nearly constant conditions in the internal environment (coined by Walter Cannon in 1929).
- Examples of functions that keep conditions constant:
- Lungs providing oxygen
- Kidneys maintaining constant ion concentrations
- Digestive system providing nutrients and eliminating waste
Origin of Nutrients in the Extracellular Fluid
- Nutrients originate in the respiratory system and gastrointestinal tract.
- Liver and other organs perform metabolic functions.
- Musculoskeletal system contributes to homeostasis.
- Metabolic waste removal includes
- Carbon dioxide removal by the lungs.
- Removal of urea, creatinine, and uric acid by the kidneys.
- Liver detoxification of ingested drugs and chemicals.
Regulation of Body Functions
- Nervous system and hormone systems regulate body functions
- Immune system and integumentary system (skin, hair, nails) provide body protection.
- Reproduction system is included by the system.
Homeostatic Control Systems of the Body
- Control systems of body include:
- Regulation of arterial blood pressure
- Regulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in ECF
- Regulation of nutrient molecules, waste products, water, salt, and electrolytes concentrations
- Regulation of body temperature
- Regulation of pH
Negative Feedback
- Negative feedback control systems maintain a steady state.
- If a factor becomes excessive or deficient, a control system initiates changes to return the factor toward a set point.
- Examples include body temperature regulation.
Positive Feedback
- Positive feedback is a self-amplifying cycle.
- Physiological changes lead to even greater change in the same direction.
- Fever is an example of harmful positive feedback.
Cell Physiology
- The typical cell has a nucleus and cytoplasm separated by the nuclear membrane and a plasma membrane that separates the cytoplasm from surrounding fluid.
- The basic components of protoplasm are water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
Cell Organelles
- Internal organelles, like mitochondria, lysosomes, etc., reside in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Water, Ions, Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates
- Water comprises a large percentage (70-85%) of cell mass.
- Ions are essential electrolytes (potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate, smaller amounts of sodium and chloride).
- Proteins are abundant (10-20%) and include structural and functional types.
- Lipids, mainly phospholipids and cholesterol, are part of the cell membrane.
- Carbohydrates, often in the form of glycogen, are stored and used for energy.
Cell Membrane
- The cell membrane is a thin, elastic structure.
- A lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids and cholesterol.
- One end of each phospholipid is soluble in water; the other is fat-soluble
- Proteins are interspersed within the lipid bilayer
- The lipid bilayer is impermeable to most water-soluble substances but permeable to fat-soluble substances, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol.
Cell Membrane Proteins
- Integral proteins: Channels for water-soluble molecules, carrier proteins for transporting substances (active transport), enzymatic functions, receptors for water-soluble chemicals, proteins for cell adhesion, and antigens.
- Peripheral proteins: Often attached to integral proteins. Their functions include enzymes and control of substance transport through membrane pores.
Membrane Carbohydrates
- Attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids). These carbohydrates have negative electrical charges, act as receptors, play roles in cell recognition and adhesion, and are involved in immune reactions.
Cytoplasmic Organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum
- A network of flat vesicles attached to one another.
- Like cell membranes, it's bounded by a lipid bilayer.
- Contains ribosomes on its outer surface, aiding in protein synthesis.
Cytoplasmic Organelles: Functions of ER
- Rough ER: synthesizes new protein molecules.
- Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, particularly phospholipids and cholesterol, and controls glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis). Involved in detoxifying substances.
Cytoplasmic Organelles: Golgi Apparatus
- Stacked layers of vesicles near the nucleus.
- Processes vesicles from the ER to form lysosomes and secretory vesicles.
- Synthesizes certain carbohydrates, including hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate.
Cytoplasmic Organelles: Mitochondria
- Powerhouses of the cell; essential for energy extraction from nutrients.
- Contains two lipid bilayer membranes (outer & inner).
- Filled with matrix containing enzymes that extract energy.
- Mitochondria contain DNA and can replicate themselves.
Mitochondria and Energy Extraction
- Mitochondria extract energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins through reactions with oxygen.
- These reactions inside the mitochondria produce energy, used for forming the high energy compound ATP.
Uses of ATP
- ATP provides the energy for various cellular processes (membrane transport, protein synthesis, muscle contraction).
Nucleus
- The nucleus, surrounded by a nuclear membrane (envelope), is the control center of the cell.
- It contains DNA (genes) that determine cell characteristics.
Ingestion by the Cell: Endocytosis
- Endocytosis, primarily pinocytosis and phagocytosis, are how cells ingest minute particles.
- Pinocytosis: Cells engulf extracellular fluid and dissolved substances.
- Phagocytosis: Cells engulf large particles like bacteria, dead cells, or tissue debris.
Phagocytosis
- Cells with phagocytizing ability are initiated when a particle binds to receptors on their surface.
- In bacteria, phagocytosis occurs by antibodies that bind to the particle, enabling the phagocyte to engulf it.
- The cell membrane surrounds and engulfs the entire particle.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of physiology and cell physiology through this quiz. Learn about the mechanisms underlying human body functions and the essential role of cells and extracellular fluid. Test your knowledge of how physical and chemical processes contribute to life's phenomena.
