Introduction to Philosophy

• Philosophy explores fundamental questions regarding existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
• Philosophy aims to grasp the fundamental axioms governing reality and human experience.

Branches of Philosophy

• Metaphysics delves into the essence of reality, existence, and the cosmos.
• Epistemology scrutinizes the nature of knowledge, justification, and belief.
• Ethics probes moral principles, values, and the principles of proper conduct.
• Logic studies the principles of correct reasoning and argumentation.
• Aesthetics examines beauty, art, and personal taste.
• Political philosophy tackles issues of justice, rights, and governance.

Metaphysics

• Ontology concerns itself with the study of existence and being.
• Seeks to categorize and comprehend the various kinds of existing entities.
• Cosmology investigates the genesis, makeup, and destiny of the universe.
• Key questions include the existence of God, the essence of time and space, and the paradox of free will against determinism.

Epistemology

• Investigates knowledge, justification, and belief.
• Justification validates beliefs with appropriate reasoning.
• Skepticism challenges the possibility of attaining definitive knowledge.
• Rationalism highlights reason as the chief origin of knowledge.
• Empiricism emphasizes experience and observation as key sources of knowledge.

Ethics

• Normative ethics puts forward moral benchmarks for discerning right from wrong.
• Meta-ethics explores the significance and groundwork of moral convictions.
• Applied ethics tackles moral dilemmas in specific fields such as medicine, business, and ecology.
• Utilitarianism advocates actions that enhance overall happiness and prosperity.
• Deontology stresses moral duties and regulations, irrespective of the outcome.
• Virtue ethics underlines the cultivation of moral character traits.

Logic

• Focuses on principles of logical reasoning and debate.
• Deductive reasoning involves deriving particular conclusions from broad premises.
• Inductive reasoning involves drawing generalities based on specific observations.
• Fallacies represent flaws in reasoning that undermine an argument's validity.

Aesthetics

• Explores the essence of beauty, art, and taste.
• Examines the definition of art, the aesthetic experience, and the interplay between art and morality.

Political Philosophy

• Addresses concerns of justice, rights, and governance.
• Investigates political ideologies like liberalism, conservatism, and socialism.
• Examines the legitimacy of state power, resource distribution, and protection of individual freedoms.
• Social contract theory examines the legitimacy of state authority over the individual.

Key Philosophers

• Plato, a classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, Socrates' student, and founder of the Academy in Athens.
• Aristotle was Plato's student, contributing to fields like logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science.
• René Descartes, a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, known for his method of doubt and "Cogito, ergo sum"
• Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, advanced transcendental idealism, stressing the importance of reason and moral obligation.
• John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher, economist, and proponent of utilitarianism and individual freedom.
• Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, critiqued traditional morality, introducing concepts like the will to power and the Übermensch.

Philosophical Movements

• Existentialism highlights individual freedom, accountability, and the quest for meaning.
• Pragmatism stresses the practical effects of beliefs and concepts.
• Phenomenology examines the structure of experience and consciousness.
• Poststructuralism questions the stability of meaning and the authority of established systems of thought.

Logic - Key Concepts

• Validity refers to the structure of an argument where true premises lead to a true conclusion.
• Soundness describes a valid argument with true premises.
• A fallacy is a defect in reasoning that renders an argument either invalid or fallacious.

Ethics - Key Theories

• Consequentialism assesses the morality based on the result of actions.
• Deontology, by Immanuel Kant, focuses on moral duties regardless of results.
• Virtue ethics, championed by Aristotle, emphasizes the development of virtuous character traits as the basis for moral behavior.
• Ethical egoism posits that individuals should act in their own self-interest.
• Altruism is other-regarding and emphasizes selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Political Philosophy - Key Ideologies

• Liberalism emphasizes individual rights, freedoms, and limited government.
• Conservatism emphasizes tradition, social order, and the importance of institutions.
• Socialism emphasizes social equality, collective ownership, and the redistribution of wealth.
• Anarchism advocates for the abolition of all forms of government and hierarchical authority.

Mind-Body Problem

• Dualism suggests the mind and body are distinct.
• Materialism claims that everything, including the mind, is physical.
• Idealism asserts that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual.
• Functionalism defines mental states by their functional roles.

Philosophy of Language

• Semantics studies the meaning of linguistic units.
• Pragmatics studies how context affects language interpretation.
• Speech act theory dissects language as a tool to perform actions.

Philosophy of Science

• Examines the principles, methods, and implications of science.
• Considers questions about the nature of scientific knowledge, the role of observation and experiment, and the relationship between science and society.
• Scientific realism asserts that scientific theories aim to provide true descriptions of the world.
• Instrumentalism views scientific theories as tools for prediction and explanation, without necessarily being true.
• Falsificationism, associated with Karl Popper, emphasizes the testability of scientific hypotheses through falsification.

Thought Experiments

• Thought experiments use hypothetical scenarios to examine implications.
• They clarify concepts, test assumptions, and explore philosophical questions.
• Common examples include the trolley problem, the Ship of Theseus, and the brain in a vat.

Argumentation Techniques

• Reductio ad absurdum proves a proposition false by showing it leads to a contradiction.
• Occam's razor suggests selecting the hypothesis with the fewest assumptions.
• The Socratic method uses questions to encourage critical thinking and clarify presuppositions.

Explore fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, and values. Understand branches like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Delve into ontology and cosmology.