Introduction to Philosophy

• Philosophy comes from the Greek words "philos" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom), defining it as the love of wisdom
• Philosophy studies fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language
• It also involves humans and the world through thinking and questioning

Two Kinds of Wisdom

• Divine wisdom, a gift from God, differs from human wisdom

Characteristics of Divine Wisdom

• From Above: A gift from above
• Pure: Free from stains and evil thoughts
• Peaceable: Free from strife or disorder
• Gentle: Considerate or kindly in disposition, amiable and tender
• Open to Reason: Willing to listen to logical or sensible thinking
• Full of Mercy: Treating people with kindness and forgiveness
• Impartial: Treating everybody equally
• Full of Good Fruits: Meant to be the produce of our lives
• Human wisdom is the quality of having experience, knowledge, and good judgement
• Knowledge is gained from experience
• Wisdom is deeper than knowledge, involving the correct application of knowledge and is the mother of morality

Origin of Philosophy

• Philosophy originated in Greece (Miletus) in the West
• Thales (624-546 BCE) is known as the Father of Philosophy in Western civilization
• He was a contemporary of the Lydian king Croesus
• Thales believed that despite the different things we encounter, there is an underlying substance everything is composed of

Other Notable Ancient Greek Philosophers

• Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) was a mathematician and scientist credited with formulating the Pythagorean theorem
• Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) proposed everything is based on a higher order or plan, called logos
• Demcritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) studied the causes of natural phenomena
• Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) advocated a simple and virtuous life
• Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) believed philosophy could enable people to live a life of happiness
• Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) was considered one of the foremost philosophers of ancient times
  • Socratic method examines a topic through a series of questions that prompt analysis of knowledge and views
• Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE), a student of Socrates, shared his mentor's teachings
  • Theory of Forms proposes that everything is based on an idea or template perceivable only in the mind
  • Dialectic is a method of inquiry involving two opposing ideas
• Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE), a prominent student of Plato, based ideas and views on perception and reality on what's sensed
  • Deductive reasoning analyzes specific statements to reach a conclusion or generalization

Holistic Thinking

• Refers to considering large-scale patterns in systems, requiring an open mindset
• It involves getting the general sense or impression of a situation and thinking with a big picture mentality
• This gives rise to a more appreciative perspective about life

Partial Thinking

• Focuses on specific aspects of a situation, is an important component of analytical thinking
• It allows focusing on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to understand it

Branches of Philosophy

• Logic (from "logos") is the science of correct reasoning
• Philosophy of Human Person (from "prosopon") is the study of humans in relation to their destiny and God
• Cosmology (from "kosmos" and "logia") is the science of inanimate objects
• Metaphysics (from "meta" and "physika") is the science of being
• Ethics (from "ethikos") relates to customs or character and is the science of morality of human acts
• Aesthetics (from "aisthetikos") relates to sense perception and is the science of art and beauty
• Epistemology (from "episteme") is the science of the theory of knowledge
• Psychology (from "psyche" and "logos") is the science of human behavior
• Social Philosophy (from "koino~nikós”) is a science of principles governing human relations
• Theodicy (from "theos" and "dike") is the science of the study of God, proving God's existence through human reason

Truth vs. Opinion

• Opinions are based on emotions, open to interpretation, cannot be confirmed, and are inherently biased
• Truth is based on facts, can be confirmed with other sources, and is independent of interpretation, preferences, and biases
• A fact cannot be either true or false; it simply reflects the way the world is
• A belief is capable of being true or false because it may or may not accurately describe the world

Theories of Truth

• Correspondence Theory of Truth suggests a belief is true if it corresponds to the facts
• Coherence Theory of Truth requires a statement to be tested as part of a larger set of ideas to determine its truth
• Pragmatist Theory of Truth states a belief is true if it has a useful application in the world

Methods of Philosophy Lead to Wisdom and Truth

• Methods of philosophy help learn the process of doing philosophy in a systematic way
• Philosophizing involves thinking or expressing oneself in a philosophical manner

Characteristics of Philosophical Questions

• Have answers that remain in dispute
• Cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith
• Of perennial intellectual interest to human beings

Methods of Philosophizing

• Dialectic Method involves coming to a conclusion from an exchange of contradicting logical arguments
• Personal and shared conceptions should be considered and corrected

The Pragmatic Method

• Started by Charles S. Pierce (1839-1914), popularized by William James (1842-1910), institutionalized in American culture by John Dewey (1859-1952)
• Philosophy offers a set of beliefs about human beings and their relationship to the world to make philosophy relevant by solving real-life problems

The Phenomenological Method

• Conceived by Edmund Husserl (born in 1859)
• Science brings a naturalistic attitude which is counterproductive to the human soul
• This attitude brings a distorted view banishing the spiritual from the world, including ideas, values, and cultures

Primary and Secondary reflections

• Primary: We have to think to distinguish who we are (the self) against other things (the non-self or objects)
• Secondary: We are not merely thinking but we are thinking about thinking and about the process we perform

The Analytic Method

• Initiated by philosophers at Cambridge University (England): George Edward Moore (1873-1958), Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) & Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
• Clarity on how philosophers through an analysis of language and linguistic analysis

Fallacies

• Argumentum ad Hominem (Appeal to the Person) attacks the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself
• Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to force) uses the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument
• Argumentum ad Misecordian (Appeal to emotion) uses emotions such as pity or sympathy
• Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to the popular) the idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it
• Argumentum ad Tradition (Appeal to tradition) the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time
• Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to ignorance) whatever has been proven false must be true and vice versa
• Petitio Principii (Begging the question) assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also known as circular argument
• Hasty Generalization when one reaches a generalization based on insufficient evidence
• Cause-and-effect assuming "cause-and-effect" relationship between unrelated events
• Fallacy of composition assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole
• Fallacy of division assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts
• Fallacy of Equivocation using the same term in a different situation with different meaning

Bias

• Correspondence bias or attribution effect judges a person's personality by his or her actions, without regard for the external factors or influence
• Confirmation bias looks for and readily accepts information which fits one's own beliefs and rejects ideas or views that go against it
• Framing focuses on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects
• Hindsight to see past events as predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical events
• Conflict of interest a person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue being discussed
• Cultural bias analyzes an event or issue based on one's cultural standards

Types of Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down Logic) conclusion comes first, followed by main points, and lastly, the supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences
  • General idea comes first before the specific or particular idea
• Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up Logic) supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences come first followed by the main points and conclusion
  • Particular idea comes first before the general idea

Human Person As An Embodied Spirit

• Man represents the entire human race
• Human - various classifications and species. human is under the classification of Mammalia
• Human Being - separate man from other Human Classifications like animals
• Person an individual who possess self-awareness, self determination, rational mind, and the capacity to interact with other and with himself/herself
• Personhood the state of being a person with unique, sacred and ethical status within him/herself
• Human Nature deepest and natural behavior of a person that distinguishes humans from animals

Three Components of Human Person

• Soul, Mind and Spirit

Two Kinds to Distinguish a Human Person

• Cognitive Self

Physical Self

• The What of a Person something within and cannot be physically seen human persons' belief, desire, dreams, and intentions
• The Who of a Person something can be seen in his/her physical appearance his/her body type, strength and appearances

Man Has

• Self-awareness the person having a clear perception of oneself, including his thoughts, emotions, identity and actions
• Self-determination capability of persons to make choices and decisions based on their own preferences, monitor, and regulate their actions
• Consequence result or effect of an action or condition
• Externality capability of a person to reach out and interact with others and the world
• Dignity the innate right to be valued and respected

What Is Embodied Spirit?

• Animating core living within each of us
• Spirit becoming flesh
• Christian philosophy: "inseparable union of human body and soul"

As an embodied spirit, human beings demonstrate these following qualities

• Self-awareness
• A human person is able to connect and interact
• We are not determined by others
• Human person has an inherent value and importance (dignity)

Limitations and Possibilities For Transcendence

• Human Transcendence St. Thomas Aquinas: "of all creatures, human beings have the unique power to change themselves and things for the better"
• Power is your ability to surpass your limits
• Able to transcend limits through physical & mental abilities

Buddha's Four Noble Truths

• Life has inevitable suffering
• There is a cause to our suffering
• There is an end to our suffering
• The end to suffering is contained in the eightfold path

The Eightfold Path

• Right view a correct understanding of the nature of things
• Right intention eliminating thoughts of attachment, detestation, and harmful intent
• Right speech abstaining from verbal offenses
• Right action refraining from physical offenses
• Right livelihood evading trades that directly or indirectly damage others
• Right effort forsaking undesirable states of mind that have already arisen and sustaining positive states
• Right concentration single-mindedness
• Right mindfulness consciousness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena

The Human Body in Imposing Limits and Possibilities

Bodily Limitations

• Mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety, intellectual disability)
• Disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness)
• Disease and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough)
• Failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject)

Social and Environmental Limitations

• Socioeconomic status
• Location of neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent)
• Neighborhood
• Abusive relationships (e.g. emotional abuse)
• Negative influences (e.g. drug use)

Environmental Ethics & Attribution of Moral Consideration

• Environmental Ethics are the studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human contents

Attribution of Moral Consideration

• Anthropocentrism human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world
• Pathocentrism Moral consideration should be extended to intelligent animals
• Biocentrism A life centered theory; humans, animals and also plants should be morally considerate
• Ecocentrism Ecosystem-centered ethics regards ecosystems as holistic entities
• Aesthetics the idea of what is beautiful

Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy

• Deep Ecology (Arne Naess) assumes that all living things possess equal value
• Social Ecology (Murray Bookchin) ecological problems can be traced to social problems
• Ecofeminism male-centered view of nature is the root cause of ecological problems

Causes of Environmental Crisis

Physical Causes

• Observable and quantifiable
• Natural: brought about solely by the processes of nature
• Human-Induced: brought about by human intervention in the processes of nature
• Chernobyl Power Plant Explosion the explosion of the power plant in Ukraine on April 26, 1986 is regarded as the worst nuclear power plant disaster in history
• Union Carbide Pesticide Plant Accident happened in Bhopal, India on December 2, 1984 resulted in 45 tons of poisonous methyl isocyanate escaping from the facility
• Kuwaiti Oil Fires the oil fires in Kuwait resulted in poisonous smoke, soot and ash, black rain, and lakes of oil, killing many livestock and other animals near the area
• The Love Canal Tragedy the contamination of Love Canal, a village with hundreds of houses and a school located near Niagara Falls in upstate New York, in 1978
• Exxon Valdez Oil Spill the oil spill from the Exxon Valdez oil tanker on March 24, 1989 in Alaska killed hundreds of birds, fish, seals, otters, and other animals

Legal Causes

• Include existing laws of the land that have something to do with the environment
• Include the absence of laws that would effectively prohibit illegal practices

Socioeconomic Causes

• Factors that are brought about by social arrangements and the economic status of human persons ex. poverty, overpopulation

Attitudinal Causes

• The beliefs and values held by humans about nature that allow them or make it permissible for them to cause damages to the natural environment

Theories

• Homo Economicus: economic well-being is primary and will bring about well-being in all other areas
• Progressivism: human condition will gradually improve through abundance included with this belief is an unquestioned trust that technology will solve all human problems
• Industrialism: mass-production and rationally designed institutions and programs are the best way to sustain human consumption
• Consumerism: well-being is achieved through abundance and consumption

Frugality and Prudence Role of Philosophy in Solving Environmental Crisis

• Frugality quality of being thrifty. It is the careful supervision of one's resources
• Prudence capacity to direct and discipline one's activities and behavior using reason. It is the behavior that is cautious and keeps away from any risks