Introduction to Philosophy

Definition, Origin, and Concepts of Philosophy

• Philosophy: Derived from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom), meaning the love of wisdom
• Explores general and fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language
• Involves the study of humans and the world through thinking and questioning

Two Kinds of Wisdom

• Divine Wisdom: A gift from God, differing from human wisdom
  • Characteristics include being from above, pure, peaceable, gentle, open to reason, full of mercy, impartial, and producing good fruits
• Human Wisdom: The quality of possessing experience, knowledge, and good judgment, essentially being wise

Distinguishing Wisdom from Knowledge

• Knowledge: Something gained from experience
• Wisdom: Deeper than knowledge, involving correct application of knowledge and acting as the mother of morality

Origin of Philosophy

• Philosophy originated in Greece, specifically in Miletus, in the West
• Thales (624-546 BCE): Considered the Father of Philosophy in Western civilization
  • A contemporary of King Croesus of Lydia
  • Believed that despite the diversity of things, there is a single underlying substance composing everything

Notable Ancient Greek Philosophers

• Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE): A mathematician and scientist credited with formulating the Pythagorean theorem
• Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE): Proposed that everything is based on a higher order or plan called logos
• Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE): Dedicated himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena
• Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE): Known for advocating a simple and virtuous life
• Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE): Believed philosophy enables people to live a life of happiness
• Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE): Considered one of the foremost philosophers
  • Socratic Method: Involves examining a topic through a series of questions to analyze one's knowledge and views
• Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE): Student of Socrates who integrated his mentor's teachings
  • Theory of Forms: Postulates that everything is based on an ideal template perceived only in the mind
  • Dialectic: A method of inquiry involving two opposing ideas
• Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE): Student of Plato who thought all ideas and views are based on perception, reality being based on what can be sensed and perceived
  • Deductive Reasoning: Specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization

Holistic Thinking

• Consideration for large-scale patterns of systems
• Requires an open mindset, the ability to grasp the general sense of a situation, and a "big picture" mentality
• Provides a more appreciative perspective on life

Partial Thinking

• Focuses on specific aspects of a situation
• Important for analytical thinking
• Understanding a problem by focusing on certain areas or aspects

Branches of Philosophy

• Logic: The science of correct reasoning
• Philosophy of Human Person: The science of studying humans in relation to destiny and God
• Cosmology: The science of inanimate objects and their contribution to understanding meaning
• Metaphysics: The science of being
• Ethics: The science of morality in human actions, determining whether an action is right or wrong
• Aesthetics: The science of art and beauty, relating to sense perception
• Epistemology: The science of the theory of knowledge
• Psychology: The science of the human mind
• Social Philosophy: The science of principles governing human relations
• Theodicy: The study of God, proving God’s existence through human reason

Truth vs. Opinion

• Opinion: Based on emotions, open to interpretation, cannot be confirmed, and is inherently biased
• Truth: Based on facts, can be confirmed, and is independent of personal interpretations, preferences and biases
• Fact: Cannot be true or false; simply the way the world is
• Belief: Capable of being true or false, depending on whether it accurately describes the world

Theories of Truth

• The Correspondence Theory of Truth: Claims are true if they correspond with facts
• The Coherence Theory of Truth: Statements must be tested as part of larger ideas
• The Pragmatist Theory of Truth: Beliefs are true if they have a pragmatic application

Methods of Philosophy

• Methods that help systematically learn philosophical processes
• Philosiphizing involves thinking or expressing oneself in a philosophical manner
• Philosophical questions must have answers, remain in dispute, cannot be settled by science, and have perennial intellectual interest
• Dialectic Method: Conclusion derived from opposing arguments to correct personal and shared conceptions
• Pragmatic Method: Offers belief in real world interactions to humans in the world, can be traced to Charles S. Pierce, William James, and John Dewey
• Phenomenological Method: Banishes a distorted view of man by focusing on values, ideas and cultures, and can be traced to Edmund Husserl

Fallacies

• Argumentum ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument
• Argumentum ad Baculum: Using force or threats to advance an argument
• Argumentum ad Misecordian: Using emotions such as pity or sympathy
• Argumentum ad Populum: Presenting an idea as acceptable because many people accept it
• Argumentum ad Tradition: Claiming acceptability based on long-held tradition
• Argumentum ad Ignorantiam: Assuming something is true because it hasn't been proven false
• Petitio Principii (Begging the Question): Assuming the conclusion is true
• Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion from insufficient evidence
• Cause-and-Effect: Assuming a relationship between unrelated events
• Fallacy of Composition: Assuming what is true of a part is true of the whole
• Fallacy of Division: Assuming what is true of the whole is true of its parts
• Fallacy of Equivocation: Using the same term with different meanings

Bias

• Correspondence Bias/Attribution Effect: Judging personality based on actions, ignoring external factors
• Confirmation Bias: Accepting information that confirms beliefs, rejecting contradictory ideas
• Framing: Focusing on certain aspects while ignoring others
• Hindsight: Seeing past events as predictable
• Conflict of Interest: Being connected to an issue being discussed
• Cultural Bias: Analyzing events based on cultural standards

Types of Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down Logic): Conclusion first, followed by points and supporting data
• Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up Logic): Supporting data first, followed by points and conclusion

The Human Person

• Man: Represents the entire human race
• Human: Various classifications and species under Mammalia
• Human Being: Differentiates humans from other classifications
• Person: An individual possessing self-awareness, self-determination, a rational mind, and the capacity to interact
• Personhood: The state of being a person with a unique status
• Human Nature: Natural behaviour to differentiate humans from animals
• Cognitive Self: Distinguishes an individual

The Human Condition

• The What of a Person: Describes non-physical traits
• Physical Self: Describes physical characteristics

Man has:

• Self-awareness: Clear perception of oneself, actions, thoughts and emotions.
• Self-determination: Ability to make decisions based on preferences including how to monitor and regulate behaviours.
• Consequence: The effect of an action.
• Externality: Engaging with people and the world..
• Dignity: Being valued and respected.

Embodied Spirit

• The union of flesh and spirit unique to humankind
• Requires self-awareness, the ability to interact, self-determination and value

Human Transcendence entails

• St. Thomas Aquinas states that human beings have has the capacity to to change themselves and things for the better.
• Surpassing the current human limitations, with both one's mental and physical abilities.
• Buddha's four noble truths including life is suffering, suffering's cause, the end of suffering coming through the eightfold path
• The Eightfold Path:
  • Right view
  • Right Intention
  • Right Speech
  • Right Action
  • Right Livelihood
  • Right Effort
  • Right Concentration
  • Right Mindfulness

Human Limitations stemming from

• Bodily: mental and emotional disorders, disabilities and diseases
• Social: status in society, location, neighborhood.

Attribution

• Moral Consideration: - A. Anthropocentrism - Human centeredness - B. Pathocentrism - Importance of animals - C. Biocentrism - A life centered theory - D. Ecocentrism - Ecosystems are holistic entities - E. Aesthetics - The idea of beauty

Causes of Environmental Crisis

• Ecological Philosophy: - Deep Ecology (Arne Naess) - all living things possess life - Social Ecology (Murray Bookchin) - ecological events are related to society - Ecofeminism - View of nature is male centered

Theories of Radical Causes of Environmental Crisis

    - Factors are quantifiable or observable
    - Brought by human or natural events
    - Caused by lack of laws

Examples of Environmental Crisis

    - Chernobyl power plant
    - Kuwaiti oil fires

Attitudinal Philosophy towards environmental change

-Homo Economicus- Wealth is the key
-Progressivism- With abundance comes trust
-Industrialism- Best way to sustain human consumption
- Consumerism - Achieved through abundance and supervision

Solving environmental crisis entails

    - Frugality; The quality of being thrifty
    - Prudence; being reasonable and disciplined